Employee making mistakes with reading and numbers.

The case below was reported in February 2016 and shows why an employer must pay attention to an employee in difficulty. 

Meseret Kumulchew v Starbucks

•    Meseret Kumulchew accused of falsifying paperwork at Clapham branch
•    She made errors when recording the temperatures of fridges and water
•    Her duties were reduced and she was told to retrain.
•    Starbucks faces a compensation claim after losing tribunal in December

A Starbucks supervisor with a diagnosis of dyslexia was demoted after making mistakes with paperwork, she took the case to a disability tribunal and won a disability discrimination claim against Starbucks because she struggled to read, write and tell the time.

Meseret Kumulchew, who struggles with reading, writing and telling the time, was accused of falsifying documents at the Clapham branch. Ms Kumulchew was given reduced duties and told to retrain after failing to correctly take the temperature of the water and fridges at regular intervals and record the results. Starbucks said the errors amounted to fraud, which she successfully claimed was a form of disability discrimination. Ms Kumulchew explained that she wasn't afforded the help needed to carry out her duties.  In a message to Starbucks she said: 'I'll struggle, but don't worry, help me and I'll get there in my own time."

Starbucks lost the tribunal in December 2015 and is now facing a compensation claim.
Starbucks was found to have victimised Ms Kumulchew and its 'equality' policies failed to support her dyslexia, they should have made 'reasonable adjustments' to her duties to help her continue in her job.

This case illustrates two core points:
1. If you are employee and you experience difficulties with reading, number or organisation and you suspect these difficulties  are linked to a specific learning difficulty such as dyslexia, dyspraxia, dyscalculia it is vital that you have a diagnostic assessment, Ms Kumulchew won her case because she had been diagnosed with dyslexia by an educational psychologist.

2. If you are employer and one of your employees is experiencing difficulties with reading, number or organisation and you suspect these difficulties  are linked to a specific learning difficulty such as dyslexia, dyspraxia, dyscalculia, then you have a duty to ask them to have a diagnostic assessment with an educational psychologist.

Many dyslexics are struggling in the work place with very high levels of anxiety, because employers do not have the training or the awareness to make adjustments for them. An educational psychologist will be able to make an assessment and identify any specific learning difficulties that may be causing mistakes at work and recommend reasonable adjustments. We offer a work related diagnostic assessment for £450, which includes a discussion and agreement with the employee as to reasonable adjustments. We welcome a representative from the employees company to observe the assessment and join the discussion as to reasonable adjustments at the conclusion of the assessment

Moderate Learning Difficulties, General Learning Difficulties, Intellectual Disability, what does this mean and are they the same?

We are often asked this question by parents.  All of the above refer to difficulties with learning across multiple contexts, so difficulties with learning academic and non-academic material.   In Wadeson Street Dyslexia Centre we prefer, when we can, to use internationally agreed and recognised terms, this is because educational psychologists reports are accepted as evidence in a variety of countries and contexts including law courts, tribunals and when claiming benefits etc. In fact we would go further and take the view that there is a professional duty to use diagnostic terms that would be internationally recognised, by professionals such as, legal, psychological and medical where possible.  There is a trend within LEA educational psychology services to use the term: moderate learning difficulties to describe children who are experiencing difficulties with accessing the school curriculum despite skilled differentiation and support.  The term moderate learning difficulties is not an internationally recognised term and does not appear in ICD 10 or DSM-5.  Whilst a psychologist or physician in a country other than UK could deduce what was meant by the term moderate learning difficulties it could cause difficulties when seeking to access support or provision because moderate learning difficulties is not a clear internationally agreed diagnostic definition. It is also entirely likely that even within the UK, because there are no clear diagnostic criteria, that a diagnosis of moderate learning difficulties could be challenged. Below you will find a description of moderate learning difficulties published on the Institute of Education web site. Then below that is a summary of the criteria for the diagnosis of intellectual disability provided by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM -5)  The DSM-5 is produced by the American Psychiatric Association and is used across the world.

Moderate learning difficulties (MLD)
Pupils with MLD will have attainments well below expected levels in all or most areas of the curriculum, despite appropriate interventions. They will have much greater difficulty than their peers in acquiring basic literacy and numeracy skills and in understanding concepts. They may also have associated speech and language delay, low self-esteem, low levels of concentration and underdeveloped social skills. 

The school environment/curriculum can present a range of barriers to participation and learning for pupils with MLD. The SEN Code of Practice says that pupils who demonstrate features of MLD, require specific programmes to aid progress in cognition and learning. In particular, pupils with MLD may need support with:

understanding instructions and the requirements of tasks " acquiring sequencing skills − for example, when following a recipe or science experiment " understanding how they affect and relate to their immediate surroundings " personal organisation over the short, medium and long term, and " visual and auditory memory for information, processes and instructions. "

Careful assessment of baselines and monitoring of progress will help ensure that their progress can be recognised and built upon.

DSM-5 Criterion for the diagnosis of intellectual disability from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5, APA 2013). 

Severity is assessed across three domains, a summary of the diagnostic criteria for each domain are as follows:

1. Deficits in intellectual functioning
2. Deficits or impairments in adaptive functioning
3. Deficits in intellectual and adaptive functioning were present during the developmental period. 

Deficits in intellectual functioning
This includes various mental abilities:
•    Reasoning
•    Problem solving
•    Planning
•    Abstract thinking
•    Judgment
•    Academic learning (ability to learn in school via traditional teaching methods)
•    Experiential learning (the ability to learn through experience, trial and error, and observation)

These mental abilities are measured by IQ tests. A score of approximately two standard deviations below average represents a significant cognitive deficit.  This is typically an IQ score of 70 or below.

Deficits or impairments in adaptive functioning
This includes skills needed to live in an independent and responsible manner. Limited abilities in these life skills make it difficult to achieve age appropriate standards of behaviour. Without these skills, a person needs additional supports to succeed at school, work, or independent life. 
Various skills are needed for daily living: 
•    Communication: This refers to the ability to convey information from one person to another. Communication is conveyed through words and actions. It involves the ability to understand others, and to express oneself through words or actions.

•    Social skills: This refers to the ability to interact effectively with others. We usually take social skills for granted. However, these skills are critical for success in life. These skills include the ability to understand and comply with social rules, customs, and standards of public behaviour. This intricate function requires the ability to process figurative language and detect unspoken cues such as body language.

•    Personal independence at home or in community settings: This refers to the ability to take care of oneself. Some examples are bathing, dressing, and feeding. It also includes the ability to safely complete day-to-day tasks without guidance. Some examples are cooking, cleaning, and laundry. There e are also routine activities performed in the community. This includes shopping for groceries, and accessing public transportation.

•    School or work functioning: This refers to the ability to conform to the social standards at work or school. It includes the ability to learn new knowledge, skills, and abilities. Furthermore, people must apply this information in a practical, adaptive manner; without excessive direction or guidance.

Adaptive functioning is usually measured using a recognised test instrument such as the Vineland II.

Deficits in intellectual and adaptive functioning were present during the developmental period. 
This means problems with intellectual or adaptive functioning were evident during childhood or adolescence.  This information can come from the Vineland II, but primarily from an in-depth interview, either with the client if an adult or a parent or care giver.

You can see that there is much in common, but the identification of moderate learning difficulties as described does not require measurement using test instruments whereas it is a requirement for the diagnosis of intellectual disability.  

Typical Ages Of Elimination For Sound Errors (Phonological Processes)

Below you will find descriptions of phonological processes (a pattern of sound error(s)) a typical child will use. This includes an example, and the approximate age (years;months) at which these processes will stop being used.

• Pre-vocalic voicing:        pig = big        3;0
• Word-final de-voicing:       pig = pick        3;0
• Final consonant deletion:    comb = coe        3;3
• Fronting:       car = tar        3;6
• Consonant harmony:       mine = mime        3;9
• Weak syllable deletion:        elephant = efant    4;0
• Cluster reduction:        spoon = poon        4;0
• Gliding of liquids:        run = one        5;0
• Stopping /f/:            fish = tish        3;0
• Stopping /s/ :          soap = dope        3;0
• Stopping /v/ :           very = berry        3;6
• Stopping /z/:            zoo = doo        3;6
• Stopping 'sh' :           shop = dop        4;6
• Stopping 'j':            jump = dump        4;6
• Stopping 'ch':            chair = tare        4;6
• Stopping voiceless 'th':        thing = ting        5;0
• Stopping voiced 'th' :       them = dem        5;0

If you are concerned about your child’s speech or language development, please email for free advice: speech-language-therapist@outlook.com 

Alternatively, please see our fixed fee assessment which may meet your needs

References

• Bowen, C. (2011). Table 3: Elimination of Phonological Processes. Retrieved from http://www.speech-language-therapy.com/ on 16/01/2016.
• Bowen, C. (1998). Developmental phonological disorders. A practical guide for families and teachers. Melbourne: ACER Press.
• Grunwell, P. (1997). Natural phonology. In M. Ball & R. Kent (Eds.), The new phonologies: Developments in clinical linguistics. San Deigo, CA: Singular Publishing Group, Inc.

Phonological Processes In Typical Development

As children learn to speak, they tend to use some different sound errors or patterns as they are not yet able to use all the sounds in all the different word positions that most adults can use. These are called phonological processes. As they get older, these typically disappear as they become more able to pronounce all the words they need to use correctly. For the typical ages that phonological processes are gone by, please click here.

Below, the name of the phonological process is given, along with an example and a description of what is happening to create the process. 

• Pre-vocalic voicing:    car = gar    A voiceless sound preceding a vowel is replaced by a voiced sound.
• Word final devoicing:    red = ret    A final voiced consonant is replaced by a voiceless consonant
• Final consonant deletion:    boat = bo    A final consonant is omitted (deleted) from a word.
• Velar fronting:    car = tar    A back sound is replaced by a front sound.
• Palatal fronting:    ship = sip    sh or zh are replaced b y s or z respectively
• Consonant harmony:    cup = pup    The pronunciation of a word is influenced by one of the sounds it 'should' contain.
• Weak syllable deletion:    telephone = teffone    Weak (unstressed) syllables are deleted from words of more than one syllable.
• Cluster reduction:    try = ty    A cluster element is deleted or replaced.
• Gliding of liquids:    ladder = wadder    Liquids are replaced by glides.
• Stopping:    ship = tip    A stop consonant replaces a fricative or affricate.

If you are concerned about your child’s speech or language development, please email for free advice: speech-language-therapist@outlook.com 

Alternatively, please see our fixed fee assessment which may meet your needs

References

• Bowen, C. (2011). Table 2: Phonological Processess. Retrieved from http://www.speech-language-therapy.com/ on 16/01/2016.

Typical Stages Of Language Development

January 26, 2016

Receptive Language
Receptive language development refers to how children develop listening skills and an understanding of the language they are hearing. 

Birth
Language learning starts at birth. Even new babies are aware of the sounds in the environment. They listen to the speech of those close to them, and startle or cry if there is an unexpected noise. Loud noises wake them, and they become "still" in response to new sounds.

0-3 months
Between 0-3 months babies learn to turn to you when you speak, and smile when they hear your voice. In fact, they seem to recognise your familiar voice, and will quieten at the sound of it if they are crying. Tiny babies under three months will also stop their activity and listen closely to the sound of an unfamiliar voice. They will often respond to comforting tones whether the voice is familiar or not.
 
4-6 months
Between 4 to 6 months babies respond to the word "no". They are also responsive to changes in your tone of voice, and to sounds other than speech. For example, they can be fascinated by toys and other objects that make sounds, enjoy music and rhythm, and look in an interested or apprehensive way for the source of all sorts of new sounds such as the toaster, birdsong and the whirr of machines.

7-12 months
During the 7 to 12 month timeframe, the baby will listen when spoken to, turns and looks at your face when called by name, and discovers the fun of games like "peep-oh" and "pat-a-cake". They will begin to recognise the names of familiar objects ("Daddy", "car", "eyes", "phone", "key") and begin to respond to requests ("Give it to Granny") and questions ("More juice?").
 
1-2 years
Now your child points to pictures in a book when you name them, and can point to a few body parts when asked (nose, eyes, tummy). He or she can also follow simple commands ("Push the bus!", "Don't touch; it's hot!") and understand simple questions ("Where's the toy?" "Who likes chocolate?", "What's in your bag?"). Your toddler now likes listening to simple stories and enjoys it when you sing songs or say rhymes. This is a stage in which he or she will want the same story, rhyme or game repeated many times.

2-3 years
By now your toddler will understand two stage commands ("Get your coat and put your shoes on") and understand contrasting concepts or meanings like hot / cold / stop / go / in / on and nice. He or she notices sounds like the telephone or doorbell ringing and may point or become excited, get you to answer, or attempt to answer themselves.

3-4 years
Your three or four year old understands simple "Who?", "What?" and "Where?" questions, and can hear you when you call from another room. This is an age where hearing difficulties may become evident. If you are in doubt about your child's hearing, speak to your GP who will refer you to a clinical audiologist.

4-5 years
Children in this age range enjoy stories and can answer simple questions about them. He or she hears and understands nearly everything that is said (within reason) at home or at pre-school or day care. 
 
Expressive Language
Expressive language refers to how children learn to speak and use Language

Birth
Newborn babies make sounds that let others know that they are experiencing pleasure or pain.

0-3 months
Your baby smiles at you when you come into view. He or she repeats the same sound a lot and "coos and goos" when content. The baby uses a different cry for different situations to help you differentiate between what they need. For example, one cry says "I'm hungry" and another says "I have a pain".

4-6 months
Gurgling sounds or "vocal play" occur while you are playing with your baby or when they are occupying themselves happily. Babbling really gets going in this age range, and your baby will sometimes sound as though he or she is talking. This speech-like babbling includes many sounds, often these are bilabial (two-lip) sounds e.g. 'p', 'b' and 'm'. They also use different pitches. Your baby can tell you, using sounds or gestures that they want something, or want you to do something. He or she can use very "urgent" noises and facial expressions to spur you into action.

7-12 months
The sound of your baby's babbling changes. This is because it now includes more consonants, as well as long and short vowels. He or she uses speech and/or sounds other than crying to get your attention and hold on to it. Your baby's first words may be spoken (they may not be very clear yet). Examples of typical first words are: "MaMa", "Doggie", "Night Night", "Bye Bye", "No")

1-2 years
Now your baby is accumulating more words as each month passes. He or she will even ask 2-word questions like "Where ball?" "What's that?" "More choc", and combine two words in other ways to make other sentence types ("Birdie go", "No doggie", "More push"). Words are becoming clearer as more initial consonants are used.

2-3 years
Your two or three year old's vocabulary is increasing quickly. He or she seems to have a word for almost everything. Utterances are usually one, two or three words long and family members can usually understand them. Your toddler may ask for, or draw your attention to something by naming it ("Dog") or one of its attributes ("Red!") or by commenting ("Wow!").
 
3-4 years
Sentences are becoming longer as your child can combine four or more words. He or she talks about things that have happened away from home, and is interested in talking about pre-school, friends, outings and interesting experiences. Speech is usually fluent and clear and people outside of the family can understand what your child is saying most of the time. 

4-5 years
Your child speaks clearly and fluently in an easy-to-listen-to voice. He or she can construct long and detailed sentences ("We went to the zoo but we had to come home early because Sally wasn't feeling well". He or she can tell a long, involved imaginative story sticking to the topic, and using "adult-like" grammar. Most sounds are pronounced correctly, though he or she may be lisping as a four year old, or, at five, still have difficulty with "r", "v" and "th".
Your child can communicate easily with familiar adults and with other children. Your child may tell fantastic, dramatic, inventive, "tall stories" and engage strangers in conversation when you are out together.
 
If you are concerned about your child’s speech or language development, please email for free advice: speech-language-therapist@outlook.com

Alternatively, please see our fixed fee assessment which may meet your needs

References

• Bowen, C. (1998). Ages and Stages Summary: Language Development 0-5 years. Retrieved from http://www.speech-language-therapy.com/ on

The Difference Between 'Speech' And 'Language' Impairments

Speech
‘Speech’ refers to the sounds we make when we are talking. We put strings of sounds together to create words. For example, ‘Cat’ is made up of 3 sounds – C, A and T. The number of sounds in a word does not necessarily correspond to the number of letters when spelling the word. For example, ‘Fright’ is made up of the sounds F, R, I and T (the ‘I’ would be pronounced like ‘eye’).

Different sounds develop at different ages, for example, ‘m’ is typically acquired at around 3 years old, whereas ‘v’ is not typically acquired until 6 years, and ‘th’ until 8 years (Kilminster & Laird, 1978). Children initially will not be able to produce certain sounds, or produce all the sounds in a longer word and so employ phonological processes e.g. saying ‘lectic’ for ‘electric’ or always producing ‘k’ as ‘t’. For more information on phonological processes used in typical development, see here: LINK. All children employ phonological processes up to a certain age. Norms for elimination of phonological processes can be found here: LINK.

Speech Sound Disorder (SSD) is an umbrella term referring to slow development of, or a difficulty with, speech development. An SSD could include articulation disorder, phonological disorder, childhood apraxia of speech and motor-speech disorders. If a child has a speech sound disorder, they may have difficulty producing certain sounds past the age at which those sounds would typically have been acquired. They may use a pattern of sound errors (phonolocial processes) past the age at which this may be typical. A child may be unable to coordinate the sounds needed to make up words, or have a structural or neurological reason that they cannot produce all of the sounds we use when we are talking.

A child may also have difficulty processing certain sounds; this will inevitably lead to difficulty producing that sound. This could have different causes e.g. glue ear, or an Auditory Processing Disorder. 

A Speech and Language Therapist will assess your child’s ability to process and produce a full range of speech sounds to identify how to best target any difficulties in therapy. They may use a formal assessment such as the Diagnostic Evaluation of Articulation and Phonology (DEAP) (Dodd et. al., 2002). For further information on the DEAP, see here: LINK.

Language
Language refers to the meaning of the words we use. When we talk, we string words together into sentences to convey meaning. We also listen to other people’s sentences to understand what they are telling us. Children move through language development milestones, however there will of course be some variation between them. Norms for language development can be found here: LINK

Children may have a language delay if they do not achieve language norms within the expected time-frame. Children may also be diagnosed with ‘Specific Language Impairment’; this is where language is below the expected level in relation to a child’s academic abilities in the absence of general learning difficulty, hearing impairment, autism spectrum condition or anything else that could explain their language difficulty.

A Speech and Language Therapist will assess your child for language impairment. They may use a formal assessment such as the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF) (Semel et. al., 2006), along with speaking to the child’s parents and teachers. They may also observe the child in different settings. They will use the information gained in assessment to inform their therapy plan.

If you are concerned about your child’s speech or language development, please email for free advice: speech-language-therapist@outlook.com
 

Alternatively, please see our fixed fee assessment which may meet your needs.

References

• Bowen, C. (1998). Ages and Stages Summary: Language Development 0-5 years. Retrieved from http://www.speech-language-therapy.com/ on[insert the date that you retrieved the file here].
• CELF
• Kilminster, M.G.E., & Laird, E.M. (1978) Articulation development in children aged three to nine years. Australian Journal of Human Communication Disorders, 6, 1, 23-30.
• Bowen, C. (2011). Table 2: Phonological Processess. Retrieved from http://www.speech-language-therapy.com/ on [insert the date that you retrieved the file here].
• Bowen, C. (2011). Table 3: Elimination of Phonological Processes. Retrieved from http://www.speech-language-therapy.com/ on [insert the date that you retrieved the file here].
• DEAP

CONTACT SPEECH AND LANGUAGE THERAPIST FOR ADVICE

BOOK ASSESSMENT WITH SPEECH AND LANGUAGE THERAPIST

Reading Tips

Reading (or 'engaging with text')

For many dyslexic students, the reading load they are given is a burden. There are very good ways to make this easier to handle. To a degree, it means making a change to your 'philosophy of reading'. However, if you would like to save time and stress with your reading-list-load, note the tips below.

Firstly, you don't have to read, cover to cover, everything your tutors tell you to. They might say otherwise, but you don’t. You may well need a familiarity with – an overview of – many texts, but you can obtain this without the grief of painfully reading every word of every sentence of every paragraph. A change to your approach can turn a painful and not very rewarding half-day into a satisfying twenty minutes. It really can make that much difference, but you have to adjust your approach and expectations.

Of course, if you want to read the whole thing, have the time and enjoy doing it, that's your choice. Good for you. This piece is written on the assumption that you don't want to or don't have the time or don't enjoy it.

Not all people learn in the same way. Some prefer to start with detail and move from that to the bigger picture. Some are better at beginning with the overview and proceeding in the other direction – to the detail. Reading is a 'detail to overview' process, but dyslexics tend to be better at 'overview to detail'. In fact, dyslexics often have a talent for understanding a subject – having a 'feel for' it – just by gaining a overview of it and, through a sort of intuitive process, 'getting it'.

Note that this is never enough if you have to write an essay on a subject. Although the ideas here are useful to begin to study an essay topic, detailed reading will always be needed (see Essay Writing). But this approach will be enough for preparing for a seminar, tutorial or lecture, or for just gaining a background understanding of a subject. And it can save huge amounts of time and energy.

So, how does a dyslexic obtain an overview of a text without reading 'every word of every sentence'? It's useful to bear in mind that information doesn't exist in the world in the way it's usually presented in academic writing. Out there 'all the things that there are to know' aren't ordered, analysed, put into chapters and expressed in formal sentences. Rather, they exist in a mish-mash of messily interconnected bits and pieces which someone then 'makes sense of' and writes in a book – according to their personal analysis and interpretation. The reader, therefore, should feel free to engage with the text in ways other than the 'start with word one, proceed to word two and so on' approach.

Before any engagement with the text, however, you should first make a mental – or written – note of what you expect/hope to learn from your session. Part of what it takes is to prepare yourself for absorbing the information. And always make notes as you engage with the text. Always write down the ideas you encounter that seem interesting or important – along with the book and page number. You don't want to have to back-track.

Then you should start at the front and the back of the text and work your way in. This is the 'Bookends' approach.

Skim over the contents and index of the book. Do you see anything interesting or relevant? Be confident of your ability to intuitively know this. You will have some familiarity with the topic, however superficial. Let this guide you. If nothing grabs your attention, perhaps you don't need to bother with this text.

If something does, go to that chapter/section. Read the first and last paragraph (or the introduction and the conclusion). Often, you won't need to do more than this to 'get' the subject. You probably don't have to know everything about it (see comment on essays, above). If you want to know more, read the first sentence of each paragraph. Or the first and last. For fun, and to see how this technique can work (and how information outside of academic texts is random and how you can engage with texts by reading them randomly) try reading the first sentence of each paragraph starting with the last paragraph and working towards the first. It really does work and can help free you from the 'tyranny of the text' – the feeling that you have to read in a conventional way.

For this approach to work, you must have faith in your ability to understand intuitively, through extrapolation (by latching on to significant aspects of a subject and more or less 'getting' the rest of it), and you must practise it. And it's OK to engage with a subject whilst knowing that you don't know everything – you don't always have to. Living with an amount of unknowns about a topic is part of this whole approach. And it's fine to do be in that position.

If texts are written well, they will usually introduce the subject of a book in the first chapter and give and overview of it in the last one. Likewise with chapters and their opening and closing paragraphs. Ditto (to a lesser but still useful extent) with paragraphs and their first and last sentences. You can use this to your advantage to help you save time and energy with your reading.

Good luck.

Essay Key Words

Key Words in Essay Titles

Account for: Explain why something happens; give reasons for it.

Analyse: Break down into its important parts and comment on. Examine in close detail; identify important points and chief features.

Comment on: Identify and write about the main issues, giving your reactions based on what you have read or heard in lectures. Avoid purely personal opinion.

Compare: Show how two or more things are similar. Indicate the relevance or consequences of these similarities.

Contrast: Show how two or more things are different. Indicate the relevance or consequences of these differences.

Critically Evaluate: Weigh arguments for and against something, assessing the strength of the evidence on both sides. Use criteria to guide your assessment of which opinions, theories, models or items are preferable.

Define: Give the exact meaning of. Where relevant, show that you understand why the definition may be significant.

Discuss: Describe the most important aspects of the topic (probably including criticism); give arguments for and against; consider the implications of.

Distinguish: Bring out the differences between two (possibly confusable) items.

Evaluate: Assess the worth, importance or usefulness of something, using evidence. There will probably be cases to be made both for and against.

Examine: Put the subject ‘under the microscope’, looking at it in detail. You may be asked to ‘critically evaluate’ as well. See 'Analyse'.

Explain: Make clear why something happens, or why something is the way it is.

Illustrate: Make something clear and explicit, giving examples or evidence.

Interpret: Give the meaning and relevance of data or other material presented.

Justify: Give evidence which supports an argument or idea; show why a conclusion or decisions were made, considering objections that others might make.

Narrate: Concentrate on saying what happened, telling it as a story.

Outline: Give only the main points, showing the main structure.

Relate: Show similarities and connections between two or more things.

State: Give the main features, in very clear English (almost like a simple list, but in sentences). 

Summarise: Draw out the main points only, omitting details or examples.

To what extent: Consider how far something is true, or contributes to a final outcome. Consider also ways in which the proposition is not true.

Trace: Follow the order of different stages in an event or process.

To contact the author Simon Hopper click here.

FIND AN EDUCATIONAL  PSYCHOLOGIST

Dyspraxia Checklist

Dyspraxia Checklist.

Dyspraxia is caused by an immaturity of the brain resulting in messages not being properly transmitted from the brain to the body.  It may help if you think of it as a problem with the internal wiring of the brain.  The incidence of Dyspraxia is approximately 2 people in 100 (2% of the population).  Within the group of people with this difficulty there is a spread, with some affected much more than others.  There is a much greater chance of males being affected, the male female split being 70% and 30% respectively.   As with any diagnosed condition, as educators or parents we always have to view things, not from the position of what is wrong, but from the standpoint of what works.  What strengths does the child have?  How can we teach this child?  To achieve a level of knowledge sufficient to teach the child and thus assist in the child maximising their development and potential we must ask questions.  Questions such as, when did the child show evidence of really engaging in a task?  When was the child put off by a task?  What was different about the two tasks?  It is only by the use of reflective and analytical teaching approaches that we will discover the way to teach any child who has special needs and difficulties.  The educational psychologist is often crucial in facilitating this approach to learning about the child's learning.

Seek advice from a psychologist

As with any parent or teacher applied checklist, you are not making a diagnosis.  The diagnosis of Dyspraxia is a highly skilled task.  Please use this checklist to see if it seems to “fit” the child.  Not all Dyspraxic children will meet all the indicators.  If there does seem to be a good “fit” then it would be useful to refer the child to a professional who is in a position to provide an accurate assessment and diagnosis.  In the UK this is often done by a speech therapist and occupational therapist working together.

Dyspraxia checklist.

1. People describe the child as being clumsy, you suspect this is due to a weak sense of body awareness.
2. The child has poor posture
3. They may walk awkwardly.
4. Laterality confusion, check this by: Asking which hand s/he writes with, which foot s/he takes kicks a ball with, ask them to look through a cardboard tube, which eye do they hold it up to?  Hand them your watch, which eye do they hold it up to?  Does everything happen with the same side or are
5. some things done left sided and others right sided?
6. The child may have difficulties throwing and catching, even with quite a large soft ball.
7. You may notice that the child is much more sensitive to touch than other children.
8. There may be objections to wearing some clothes and other routine events such as the application of plasters, having their hair brushed or teeth brushed because the child finds this uncomfortable.
9. Parents and teachers may be frustrated or have noticed that the child forgets tasks learned the previous day or there is evidence to suggest that the child has a weak working memory (short term memory).
10. There will probably be reading and writing difficulties
11. There is a very strong chance that the child cannot hold a pen or pencil properly.
12. Does the child have a weak sense of direction?
13. The child has had real difficulties with or cannot hop, skip or ride a bike.
14. The child was much slower than most children to learn to dress or feed themselves.
15. Parents and teachers may have noticed there is a difficulty in answering simple questions even though they know the answers.
16. There may be evidence of speech problems perhaps with the child being slow to learn to speak or speech may be difficult to understand.
17. It is possible that the child has a difficulty with phobias and perhaps obsessive behaviour.
18. The child may be frustrated and impatient more than one would expect for a child of their age.

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Mind Mapping (spider Diagrams)

Mind mapping or spider diagrams are a very useful way of recording information.  It is a useful revision technique as well as being an excellent way of encouraging processing of information into chunks.  It is often recommended for children who experience writing difficulties.  Furthermore, it is a useful technique for children who have some form of language disorder, as the chunking of information helps them develop comprehension skills and assists in the formation of mental links. 

If you find it difficult to persuade your child's school to adopt this or other alternative methods of recording it may be helpful seek advice from an Educational Psychologist. The resulting recommendations may prove helpful to the school and help facilitate changes that help the child fully access the curriculum.

Follow this link which demonstrates very good free mind mapping software. Further free mind-mapping software can be found here.

Find an Assessor or Educational Psychologist.

Read more about Alternative methods of recording 

Seek e mail advice 

Exam access arrangements Form 8.

Access Arrangements for Examinations

The examination boards in the UK have, for some years now, allowed a variety of access arrangements for candidates with specific learning difficulties if diagnosed and recommended by an educational psychologist.   

The type of access arrangement will very much depend upon the results of testing, history,  interview with the young person and their normal method of working.  This will be undertaken by an educational psychologist.  The psychologist can recommend a variety of adjustments such as, extra time, the use of a scribe,  the transcription of the candidates script, use of a computer if this is the candidates main method of recording at school/college etc.  The aim is to allow, as far as is possible, a fair and level playing field for the candidate to operate on, without giving them unfair advantage.

In the UK, access arrangement assessments can be undertaken by the schools allocated educational psychologist.  However, pressure of work often leads to only the very serious cases being assessed and offered access arrangements.  Some children who have parents that can afford it are privately assessed, however this seems to annoy some teachers and there was some very dubious research which gave JCQ the excuse to make a series of regulations that in our opinion are counter to the 2010 Equality Act. Nevertheless at the current time if your child has not been assessed by an EP and no moves are being made to request access arrangements and you feel that this is wrong, then you need to liaise with the school and ask them to complete sections A and B of the Form 8, this must then be sent to the independent EP of your choice, who must then make a  diagnostic assessment, write a report and complete section C of the Form 8, which is then sent to school. In other words the school are in total control over who gets to ask JCQ for access arrangements.  Our reading of the Act is that reasonable adjustments (access arrangements) must be applied if a person has a recognised disability within the Act, such as a specific learning difficulty, however until this is challenged by legal means we must play by the current rules.  The costs for this can vary greatly, to see our current fees click here.

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Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF)

The Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals®–Fourth Edition (CELF®–4) is an individually administered test for determining if a student (ages 5 through 21 years) has a language
disorder or delay. assesses four aspects of language (morphology and syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and phonological awareness).

 

 

 

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1000 Most Common English Words

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Dyslexia Tutor Writes About Self Esteem

Wise people say it is good to act to change the things you can change, accept the things you can't and even better to know the difference between the two.

You may be a parent or a teacher supporting a dyslexic child. You may be a dyslexic adult wondering how best to help yourself. If so, here is something to bear in mind. The single most important variable that affects the outcome of a person's life is self-esteem. Although prowess at academic and literacy skills is important – and can contribute to positive feelings – they are not more important than a healthy attitude to who and how you are.

A person who has weaknesses in some area of functioning but has good self-esteem is very likely to succeed, be happy and enjoy their life. They will find a way. A person with weak self-regard may lack courage and drive and even find it hard to take satisfaction in the things they do achieve.

When deciding on a course of action, therefore, ask the question; 'What will best strengthen self-esteem?' It might be working extra hard at those areas of dyslexic weakness, those academic, word-based, memory-for-detail, sequential, analytical things. Or it might not. Continuing to strive to get good at skills and activities that fall within ones areas of weakness may only serve to reinforce a feeling of 'I'm not good at stuff'. And that's bad for self-esteem. If someone is trying determinedly to improve, say, reading, writing, organisational or other skills and is consistently finding that they simply aren't very good at them, it might be better to try to find another attitude to the issue.

It’s worth bearing in mind that many skills that are prized in education are not valued in the same way beyond it. School is not the ‘real world’, the be-all and end-all – despite teachers sometimes seeming to believe it is. In the world after education 'getting the job done' is usually more important that doing it in a conventional way. In education, doing things 'according to the book' is usually what pupils are judged on as much as their outcomes.

Also, dyslexics often run into problems when they try to act as if they were not dyslexic instead of acting according to their particular strengths and weaknesses. They are often people who are good at finding their own idiosyncratic ways of doing things. Sometimes these are better than the 'normal' ways of doing them. Often it is an imposed procedure, someone else’s idea of how a task should be done, that is the issue for the dyslexic. It is good to look at tasks and ask what the required outcome is. Sometimes the dyslexic can find another way. And sometimes they don’t need to do it at all

So: act to change the things you can change. If you can improve in a particular skill area, it is good to do so – and good to get help from a dyslexia specialist if s/he can assist in this. This will strengthen self-esteem. But do learn to accept the things you can’t change. There comes a time when you should say; ‘I’m simply not so good at this, I’ll leave it to others to do – or find a way to do it that suits me’. 

This prevents positive self-esteem being damaged or negative self-esteem being reinforced.

And it is OK to be good at some things and not so good at others. Strive to develop a philosophy that distinguishes between those things you can get better at and those you don’t need to try to. Learn to judge yourself by your own values, not those of others. It is good for self-esteem. And self-esteem is the single most important variable that affects the outcome of a person's life.

Written by Simon Hopper

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Essay Planning and Briefs

Interpreting an essay brief and essay planning

Of all academic skills, the most valuable for a student is that of accurately interpreting course briefs. It's easy for a dyslexic to get this wrong and many have had the experience of receiving back a marked essay with a tutor's comment saying something like; 'Not quite what was asked for'. Students usually think that the weakness here is one of writing. It probably isn’t. It's normally one of interpretation and planning. Put differently, it's the work you do before you start writing that makes the difference between a good essay and a not so good one.

Remember that the title/brief is a menu of items that will earn you marks – if you follow it correctly. Here's an approach that will help. It may not be as easy as it seems at first but the technique is well worth mastering.

Work on the title: Take the essay title or brief, extract from it the key words or phrases (use a highlighter). Make sure that you have chosen a) all the key elements and b) the absolute minimum number of words possible. There should be a tension between these two requirements. It should make you think very hard about whether you need this or that word or phrase. If the process doesn't cause you some hard thinking, you may not be doing it right.

The exercise will be very different from one essay brief to another. It depends on how they are written. And we are assuming that the tutor has composed a title/brief that is an accurate reflection of what they require. It isn't always so. Also, you should take into account any additional requirements that the tutor has added verbally. S/he may say 'You should concentrate on X in the essay' or 'Don't spend too much time on the background issues'.

Creating a plan: Next, list these words/phrases. Your list should contain only words from the brief. Don't worry if you aren't completely sure of all of the elements at this stage. Spend some time arranging and rearranging the list until you have what looks like a plan for your essay. There isn't only one way to do this and you may have to spend time to find a result that 'works'. Some aspects of the brief may be repeated in different sections as necessary.

Add 'Introduction' to the start of the list and 'Conclusion' to the end. The introduction should have three sub-sections: overview of essay (in which the essay is 'described'); explanations and parameters (in which any aspects of the essay not clear from the title are explained, such as the student's decisions regarding content); preview of conclusion (which may start 'What this essay will show is...'). The conclusion has two main sections: overview of main arguments; concluding position including what is significant about it.

Now you should have a plan with, say, five or six sections. Depending on the detail in the brief, you may now need to add into the plan missing elements that you're aware of from your reading or lectures, etc.

Word-count: Allocate the word-count. The introduction and conclusion should each have roughly 10% of the words. Divide the balance according to your idea of where the emphasis should be. You will now have a series of separate sections of specific lengths that can be written more or less independently. All this should be done before any research – and definitely before any writing takes place.

Consider what your conclusion will say. You should certainly know this before you start to write. Think about the main significance of the subject – you'll also need to point this out.

Most students find that when they have done all of the above the task seems both clearer and more manageable.

What do I not know or understand? Now ask this question. Some students shy away from it, preferring to focus on what they do know, but it's always better to address this early in the process. The answers to the question are the areas that need to be researched first. Go to the course reading, your lecture notes. Speak to fellow students, your course tutor. You can't write your best essay unless you do this.

Bear in mind that what you will now have is a plan for your research as well as for your writing.

The 'verb': Also, learn to be clear what exactly the 'action' is that the essay requires. Most essay titles/briefs contain a main word/action/verb. It could be 'analyse', 'outline', 'describe', 'compare', 'contrast' or one of several others. (See Key Words in Essay Titles) They do not mean the same thing. Many students treat them as though they do. Or, often, they interpret all these words to mean 'write about' with little precision as to what this might mean.

Habits: When you practise all this for the first time what you are doing is creating a new habit. It's never easy to do this and your old ones will try to reassert themselves. Don't worry, it's normal. Just persevere and eventually you'll have a new habit – and better essays that actually answer the question that was set.

Key Words in Essay Titles

Account for: Explain why something happens; give reasons for it.

Analyse: Break down into its important parts and comment on. Examine in close detail; identify important points and chief features.

Comment on: Identify and write about the main issues, giving your reactions based on what you have read or heard in lectures. Avoid purely personal opinion.

Compare: Show how two or more things are similar. Indicate the relevance or consequences of these similarities.

Contrast: Show how two or more things are different. Indicate the relevance or consequences of these differences.

Critically Evaluate: Weigh arguments for and against something, assessing the strength of the evidence on both sides. Use criteria to guide your assessment of which opinions, theories, models or items are preferable.

Define: Give the exact meaning of. Where relevant, show that you understand why the definition may be significant.

Discuss: Describe the most important aspects of the topic (probably including criticism); give arguments for and against; consider the implications of.

Distinguish: Bring out the differences between two (possibly confusable) items.

Evaluate: Assess the worth, importance or usefulness of something, using evidence. There will probably be cases to be made both for and against.

Examine: Put the subject ‘under the microscope’, looking at it in detail. You may be asked to ‘critically evaluate’ as well. See 'Analyse'.

Explain: Make clear why something happens, or why something is the way it is.

Illustrate: Make something clear and explicit, giving examples or evidence.

Interpret: Give the meaning and relevance of data or other material presented.

Justify: Give evidence which supports an argument or idea; show why a conclusion or decisions were made, considering objections that others might make.

Narrate: Concentrate on saying what happened, telling it as a story.

Outline: Give only the main points, showing the main structure.

Relate: Show similarities and connections between two or more things.

State: Give the main features, in very clear English (almost like a simple list, but in sentences). 

Summarise: Draw out the main points only, omitting details or examples.

To what extent: Consider how far something is true, or contributes to a final outcome. Consider also ways in which the proposition is not true.

Trace: Follow the order of different stages in an event or process.

Written by Simon Hopper

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Relaxation Therapy

The use of a relaxation programme can be a very powerful instrument for change.  If you decide to use this technique, it is crucial that it is done at least six times per week.  It is a useful tool when dealing with children who are anxious, either generally, or in a specific context such as exam rooms.  It is useful when dealing with children who tend to present regular or occasional acts of extreme anger in the wrong context, and when anger is an inappropriate reaction to the offence if used as part of an anger management programme. 

As part of a conservative approach to the treatment of ADHD, or as part of a treatment programme that includes medication; it can be a crucial part of the overall intervention.  You can hear an example of how to deliver the script on this Youtube video. Use the script to make a recording for the child to use..  The child should commit to engaging in this activity every day.  After one month the child will have become skilled at checking for tension in their body.  At this point, a cue is needed for the child to check themselves for tension.  Usually a red dot on their watch.  If they do not wear a watch, then perhaps a mark on their school bag or for very young children a toy placed in the classroom in a place where they will tend to look fairly regularly.  Particularly with young children, active and regular intervention by the teacher and parent should be undertaken. Gently touching the child on the shoulder and saying "go floppy" is a useful technique for this.  Whenever the cue is heard or seen the child should take a moment to check themselves for tension and then let go of it.  After a period of time, approximately three to six months the intervention will die naturally.  The child will be automatically checking themselves for tension and releasing it without the use of a prompt.  The use of the tape can then be stopped. Some children like to listen to the tape whilst laying on a bean bag, although this is fine, the activity is best done whilst sitting.

Should this intervention not produce the desired results, or if you feel your child needs a more complex intervention, it may be useful to seek advice.

Seek advice from a psychologist        

Relaxation Script

Sit comfortably close your eyes and think of nothing. 

Now make your hands into fists, go on really squeeze those fists.  Feel that tight feeling,----- feel that tight feeling. ------ And now relax/go floppy. ----- Think of that lovely feeling of relaxation (or think of that lovely floppy feeling for younger children.) 

Make your hands into tight fists again and bring your hands up to touch your shoulders. Feel that tight feeling along your arms.  Feel the tight feeling and relax, think of that lovely feeling of relaxation (or think of that lovely floppy feeling.) 

Now relax your arms, let them hang loosely by your side.  Push your shoulders up and try and touch your ears.  Go on really push upwards. Feel that tight feeling in your shoulders.  Feel the tight feeling and relax, think of that lovely feeling of relaxation (or think of that lovely floppy feeling.) 

This time scrunch up your face.  Really scrunch up your face. Feel that tight feeling in you face and relax, think of that lovely feeling of relaxation (or think of that lovely floppy feeling). 

Now make your tummy muscles tight go on really tighten those muscles. Feel that tight feeling.  Feel the tight feeling and relax, think of that lovely feeling of relaxation (or think of that lovely floppy feeling.) 

Push your tummy forward this time, make your back arch, feel the tight feeling all along your back, feel that tight feeling and relax, think of that wonderful feeling of relaxation. 

Tighten the muscles in your legs, feel those muscles tightening, feel that tight feeling and relax. Feel that tight feeling along your arms.  Feel the tight feeling and relax, think of that lovely feeling of relaxation (or think of that lovely floppy feeling.) 

Now make yours toes into fists, really scrunch up those toes.  Feel that tight feeling.  Feel the tight feeling and relax, think of that lovely feeling of relaxation (or think of that lovely floppy feeling.) 

Take a deep breath hold that breath, feel that tight feeling in your lungs, feel the tight feeling now let the breath out slowly and feel all the tightness go away.   Think of that lovely feeling of relaxation (or think of that lovely floppy feeling.) 

Keep your eyes closed, we are going to check each part of your body to see if there is any tightness.  Think of your hands and arms if there is any tightness just let go of it.  Now check your shoulders, neck and face.  If you find any tightness just let go.  Check your back and shoulders, your legs and feet.  If you find any tension just let go.   

You should now be feeling wonderful and relaxed/floppy.  Just enjoy that wonderful feeling and when you feel ready open your eyes.

Reading With Your Child

General Tips for Reading Together

• Allow your child to see you reading.
• Read with expression; read slowly.
• The more your child participates in the story, the greater the understanding.
• Encourage your child to participate by asking open ended questions that make your child think, such as, "What would you do?"
• Alternate reading with your child; take turns reading a page or chapter each.
• Along with a read aloud time, plan an independent reading time also.
• Keep plenty of reading materials around the house.
• Involve your child in selecting books as much as possible.
• Matching the right book with the right child takes time. Be patient!
• Make sure that you, as the reader, enjoy the story.
• If a story isn't working, STOP READING!

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Reading Pen Review

This is a revolutionary new device; we purchased a 'Quicktionary Reading Pen'; the following review is therefore an impartial review of the product, untainted by connections or links with the manufacturer or retailer. This product is about the size of a small television remote control. When the user runs the head over a printed word, the device scans the word and then reads it aloud to the user. 

The reading pen was initially given to a group of children aged between seven and ten years. The children were shown the video that comes with the pen and then left to play with the device and get used to it. All the children were good readers and had no noticeable difficulties with motor skills. The younger children in the group were a slightly reluctant to engage, however the ten year old children very quickly found out how to use the reading pen; becoming accomplished in its' use within an hour. They were very soon experimenting with it to see if it could recognise handwriting as well as printed text. There was great disappointment when the reading pen was taken back to the office; the children had grown quite fond of it.

We were fortunate enough to have an educational psychologist in training working with us. She took the pen into schools and lent it to a number of children within the top primary to secondary age range. These children were again encouraged to watch the video and learn how to use the pen by playing with it. The children then began to use it in lessons. We anticipated that the children would find the device slightly slow to use, however this was not the case. 

A child who cannot read a word on a work sheet or in a book has a problem; the reading pen provided a solution. It did not have the emotional attachments that asking for help does, and the children did not perceive it to be slow. We hypothesised that the pen was no doubt quicker than asking the teacher, less embarrassing than asking a peer, and allowed the student a greater measure of independent learning. On the whole all the children who used it found it useful and were enthusiastic to have one of their own.

At £100 each this is a substantial investment. The tip used for scanning looks well built but would need to be looked after, as it could be vulnerable to damage. Age ten seems to be around the right age to start using this device, but some children may be able to engage with it earlier. Children selected to use it will need to have reasonable motor skills. The general feeling was that it was too fragile and easily lost or damaged to be provided by the local authority. If provided by parents it will likely be better looked after. If well maintained, we see no reason why this device couldn’t provide a long and reliable service.

On the whole the reading pen looks to be a valuable addition to the technological solutions available to help children who have difficulty with reading. As with any technological aid, it would be best to try out the device first. Experience has shown that however appropriate a parent or educator may feel a technological solution is for a child, it is only by offering children an array of aids and solutions to try, that they will be able to decide upon the best solution for them. It would probably be useful for schools to buy one of these pens to enable children to try it out. If they found it of use, then it is likely a personal reading pen were bought by the parents for the child.

Phelp's Ruling

House of Lords
Session 1999-2000

The Phelps v London Borough of Hillingdon (2001) 2 AC 619 is the landmark case on the failure to diagnose dyslexia, in accordance with duty of care in English law, and to hold that the appellant could pursue her claim against her school for humiliation, lost confidence, and lost self-esteem, and for loss of earnings following its failing to diagnose and treat her dyslexia.  Extract below.  For full document follow the link:

 http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199900/ldjudgmt/jd000727/phelp-3.htm

Vicarious liability: teachers
My second illustration concerns a teacher. Does a teacher owe a common law duty of care to a pupil who is obviously having difficulty and not making the progress he should? Teachers are not educational psychologists, and they are not to be treated as though they were. But they, too, are professionals. It would make no sense to say that educational psychologists owe a duty of care to under-performing pupils they are asked to assess, but teachers owe no duty of care to under-performing pupils in their charge or about whom they give educational advice under the statutory scheme. In the same way as an educational psychologist owes a duty of care in respect of matters falling within the scope of his professional expertise, by parity of reasoning so must a teacher owe a duty of care to a child with learning difficulties in respect of matters which fall within his field of competence. A teacher must exercise due skill and care to respond appropriately to the manifest problems of such a child, including informing the head-teacher or others about the child's problems and carrying out any instructions he is given. If he does not do so, he will be in breach of the duty he owes the child, as well as being in breach of the duties he owes his employer, and his employer will be vicariously liable accordingly.

    My third illustration raises a particularly controversial issue. It cannot be that a teacher owes a duty of care only to children with special educational needs. The law would be in an extraordinary state if, in carrying out their teaching responsibilities, teachers owed duties to some of their pupils but not others. So the question which arises, and cannot be shirked, is whether teachers owe duties of care to all their pupils in respect of the way they discharge their teaching responsibilities. This question has far-reaching implications. Different legal systems have given different answers to this question.

    I can see no escape from the conclusion that teachers do, indeed, owe such duties. The principal objection raised to this conclusion is the spectre of a rash of 'gold digging' actions brought on behalf of under-achieving children by discontented parents, perhaps years after the events complained of. If teachers are liable, education authorities will be vicariously liable, since the negligent acts or omissions were committed in the course of the teachers' employment. So, it is said, the limited resources of education authorities and the time of teaching staff will be diverted away from teaching and into defending unmeritorious legal claims. Further, schools will have to prepare and keep full records, lest they be unable to rebut negligence allegations, brought out of the blue years later. For one or more of these reasons, the overall standard of education given to children is likely to suffer if a legal duty of care were held to exist.

In England and Wales, the failure of schools to diagnose and provide remedial can help for dyslexia following the House of Lords decision in the case of Pamela Phelps has created an entitlement for students with dyslexia in Higher education to receive support funded via the Disabled Students Allowance. Support can take the form of IT equipment (software and hardware) as well as personal assistance, also known as non-medical helper support. Dyslexic students will also be entitled to special provision in examinations such as additional time to allow them to read and comprehend exam questions.

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Paired Reading

Paired reading

Paired reading is a very powerful technique, particularly with children who have lost confidence.  The pair comprises a skilled reader and a learner; they read the text together. When the learner wants to take over reading they give a signal, usually by tapping on the page. It is best to ask the learner what signal they would like to use. The essence of this technique is that the learner can decide when to read, it therefore follows that there should be no pressure, overt or covert, for the learner to read.  This will allow confidence to develop, as there is no fear of failure.  

This technique can also be used to allow access to reading material that would ordinarily be beyond the learner.

Process of Paired Reading

1. Read along with the learner
2. Adjust your speed so that you stay together.
3. Repeat each misread word until the learner reads it correctly.
4. Look for a prearranged signal to indicate the learner wants to read an easier section alone.
5. Stop reading along when the learner gives the signal
6. If the learner makes an error: say the word correctly, and read along again until the learner signals you to stop.
7. Praise the learner frequently for correct reading

Follow this link to see a video demonstration of paired reading

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