Origins Of Visual Stress (Meares-Irlen Syndrome)

A teacher in New Zealand, Olive Meares, was the first to provide a detailed written account of the spatial distortions affecting text being read by some individuals.  Olive Meares also reported that the effects she cited could be reduced or eliminated by the use of coloured paper or by using coloured plastic overlays; the overlay is placed over the text to be read.

A psychologist working in California, Helen Irlen, wrote a paper describing symptoms similar to Olive Meares.  Ms Irlen, named the effects as Scotopic Sensitivity or Irlen Syndrome.  The syndrome was one in which reading is impeded by distortions of print. She reported that the distortions were positively effected if text was viewed through a coloured filter or overlay.  Ms Irlen went further and established a protocol for screening for scotopic sensitivity and a system for dispensing coloured overlays as a result of the assessment.

There followed a period of time during which the scientific community discussed these findings with a great deal of skepticism.  For instance, I was told by very senior psychologists that it was nonsense; the problem being that there was no satisfactory explanation as to why the treatment of visual distortion of text with coloured overlays should work.  Of course this did not mean that it did not work.  In fact medicine is littered with examples of treatments working first followed by an understanding of why much later.

Prof. Wilkins and colleagues of Essex University were amongst the first to apply scientific rigor to the study of scotopic sensitivity or Meares-Irlen Syndrome, as it had become known.  The Essex University team set up double blind placebo controlled trials and went on to establish a number of tools for screening for scotopic sensitivity and quantifying the effects of coloured overlays. 

The screening test is available to professionals and is know as the Intuitive Overlays Test.  Whilst the tool used to quantify the effects of overlays is also available to professionals and is known as the Wilkins rate of reading test.

In the past, assessment for scotopic sensitivity was generally done by the Irlen Institute.  It was quite an expensive assessment and the overlays were also relatively expensive.  Now the Intuitive Overlays Test combined with the Wilkins rate of reading test has enabled practitioners who have been trained by the Institute of Optometrists to carry out an assessment and prescribe an overlay for use when reading.  This has rolled out the number of professionals who have these assessment skills and made the assessment and prescription of suitable overlays much more affordable.

If you or your child is experiencing visual effects such as text wobbling, moving, flickering, blocking out, underlining, halo effects, head aches and/or a feeling of over brightness, then it would be useful to have an assessment in this regard.  

Observation, Checking A Child Is Accessing The Curriculum

This technique is primarily aimed at children who are not accessing the curriculum due to language difficulties.  You should, however, also be aware and take note of the child's propensity/ability to make appropriate use of peers for support and assistance as this may contribute to the evidence gathering process shedding light upon areas such as approach to learning, social skills and self esteem.

Usually I prefer to observe a child before they know who I am. This technique is usually used after some assessment which has lead to a hypotheses of some difficulty. At the very least it may be that the child is not comprehending the verbal learning environment very well for a range of reasons such as specific or general language problems.  You could use this technique for a child that has difficulties concentrating by being very overt and telling them that you are going to be looking to see how many questions they can answer if they concentrate.   Similarly this may be used just before a review is due to gather information to compare with a base line specified prior to your intervention.

You will need the observed session to have a strong verbal component; carpet time is often suitable.  You will be keeping one eye on the child and noting their behaviour, but you will also be noting down questions that can be asked about what is being taught, the story that is being read out etc. 

You will then be left with a series of age appropriate questions that relate to the 15 to 20 minute session that they have just taken part in.  You will also have some notes on the presenting behaviour. Was it restless? Helpless? Actively involved?  Below is an example layout with example questions:

Question	Appropriate Answer	Child's Answer
Who was asked to come to the front and talk about an award they got?	Ben and Tom	Ben and Tom
What did thy get the award for?	Football	Reading?
Your teacher read you a story, what was it about?	Harry Potter	looks at me for a clue no answer
Your teacher asked you all to tell your parents some things about sports day.  Can you tell me something she asked you to tell your parents?	Next week on Wednesday, white shirt, will get letter later this week with details.	They can come?

Naturally you would have a few more questions but you should get some ideas about their behaviour.  The little boy in this example is confirming our hypothesis gained from assessment or professional judgement: he has real difficulties processing the spoken word into usable information or remembering it once he has processed it.  You are now able to illustrate in your report the scale of the child's difficulties by detailing the questions asked and the responses.  You may wish to ask other members of the class the same questions to develop a contrast between the target child and peers.

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Advanced Observational Techniques (use of a control pupil)

Once you have got the hang of observing using the methods suggested in the previous paper on basic observation techniques, you may wish to strengthen your reports or evidence gathering with a comparison to other members of the class.   This technique involves the observer making a primary observation on the target child using the same methodology advocated in basic observation.  However, after the target child has been observed, the observer will make a secondary and nearly simultaneous observation by quickly looking at the control child (a child selected at random from within the same class) and note what they are doing.  Thus an observation record would look something like this:

Time	Target Child	Control Child
10.00	Fiddle with pencil case 30 sec. LA 10 sec. Talk 20 sec.	OT
10.01	Talk 30 sec. W 30 sec, talk to blonde girl	OT, talk 10 sec.
10.02	W 40 sec talk to blonde girl T> sit down, to seat	OT >T for help
10.03	LA 10 sec, talk 30 sec T> stern look. OT 20 sec	With T, OT
10.04	W 40 sec girl red jumper T> warn, OT 10 sec	OT
10.05	OT 20 sec, talk40 sec	OT
10.06	T> final warn, argue 60 sec.	OT, Talk 15 sec, to pencil sharpener

OT =  on task
LA = look around
W = wander around classroom
T> = teacher instigates interaction with target pupil
>T = pupil instigates interaction with teacher

You are now able to report in a more professional way that the target child was, for instance, on task (OT) for 60 seconds (control 5 minutes plus) and engaged in the following restless and off task behaviours: talking 3 minutes 10 seconds (control 10 seconds), wandering 3 minutes 30 seconds (control 0 seconds), teacher needed to approach pupil 4 all disciplinary in nature escalating from non verbal to final warning (control  one approach to Teacher for help).

You will note that the control pupils behaviour is notably different from that of the target child.  The use of a control has made the behaviour of the target child more notable due to the contrast.  By using a control you have also made a point with regard to the behaviour of the rest of the class, it is very good if surmised from the above.  However, you may be asked to report on a child who is in a very noisy class, use of a control may highlight the need for a whole class approach due to the behaviour of the control which may be nearly as poor as the target child. 

You may wish to note in your report onhow the control was selected.  Did you choose them at random? Or did you ask the teacher to point out an average child.  Personally I have usually gone for a child with similar coloured and styled hair or a similar jumper.  There is no science in this and once or twice I have selected a child that also has difficulties, however this soon becomes apparent and you can switch control very easily.  I prefer to be able to report that I selected the control at random using hair colour in my reports rather than report that the control was selected by the teacher because I feel that it adds credibility.

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Observation In Playground And Classroom

Classroom and Playground Observation

There are books and chapters in books and no doubt countless pages on the internet describing various techniques for undertaking this part of a child’s assessment. Over the years I have practiced, I must have looked at hundreds of examples. For a parent or teacher seeking information on observation techniques it must seem very confusing. The following techniques are the methods I have settled on and used successfully for years; both are very simple. I always use both techniques sometimes in sequence but more often in tandem. If you are new to observation I would suggest doing them in sequence, you will naturally begin to use them in tandem as you gain experience. All you need is a note pad a pen and a watch.

Minute by minute observation:

I tend to do a 20-minute observation using this technique. You need to establish some codes for yourself. Some codes you will use for every observation, other codes you will need to generate as the child presents particular behaviors. For instance >T means child approaches teacher, whilst T> means teacher approaches child. I tend to embellish this with a note as to the reason for the approach, teach, help, reprimand for example. If the child makes animal noises, I might code this as AN – Dog. If the activity changes note this down and carry on with the observation

Here are some of my regular codes:

· >T help = Child approaches teacher you can note why if you wish.

· T> teach = Teacher approaches child to teach task individually

· W 20 sec sharpen pencil = The child wandered the classroom for 20 seconds and sharpened pencil

· OT 30 sec. = On task for 30 seconds

· Off T 60 sec. = Off task 60 seconds

· LA 20 sec = look around 20 sec.

These are just to give you some idea; it may be best if you figure out your own codes. You use codes to increase your head up observing time, the observation sheet does not have to be lovely and neat. Mine are only really decipherable by me, but I get a lot of head up observing time. Here is a fun example to give you an idea of what part of an observation note might look like.

Bill Clinton observation 2.2.99

Pencil and paper task, write news

10.00 fiddle with pencil case 30 sec. LA 10 sec. Talk 20 sec.

10.01 Talk 30 sec. W 30 sec, talk to blonde girl

10.02 W 40 sec talk to blonde girl T> sit down, to seat

10.03 LA 10 sec, talk 30 sec T> stern look. OT 20 sec

10.04 W 40 sec girl red jumper T> warn, OT 10 sec

10.05 OT 20 sec, talk40 sec

10.06 T> final warn, argue 60 sec.

Here we can see that Bill either can’t write his news or would prefer to talk to the girls. His teacher can bring him to heel but this only lasts a short time.

This observation technique will allow you to be very scientific. You will for instance be able to say that when a child is offered a pencil and paper task they will be off task for so many minutes in a 20 minute observation. You will be able to include in your report the noises the child made or the number and amount of time they spent wandering around the classroom. You will be able to baseline the most used off task behavior and use this as the data to measure any improvements against. When you look at the observation as a whole in a quiet moment you may see patterns.

Observation technique two

This technique is quite the opposite of the above technique. Here you simply clear your mind and watch the child in the learning context. I tend to note down what the set task is and if it changes note this, thus the set task note breaks up my notes. I tend to watch in five-minute blocks then write down anything I feel is relevant. I am looking for patterns of behaviour, friendships, alliances, evidence of relationships both individual and group. You are observing as a human not as a psychologist, parent or teacher. No matter how odd your perception of what is happening note it down.

An example may look like this

A. Child Observation, Science. 2.2.99

Task: to watch teacher demonstrate an experiment to the whole class.

Seems keen and interested. Puts hand up to assist. No negative interaction between target child and peers or teacher. 15 min

Task: to copy notes about the experiment from the board.

Appears to look up at the board more frequently that the other children. Poor visual memory?

Gets on with task, no negative behaviors. 8 min.

Task: teacher does question and answer session to round off lesson.

Off task, pays little attention to teacher. Rarely makes eye contact with teacher, but seems to be trying to gain the attention of peers by engaging in various acts of silliness. He is not disruptive because the other children choose to ignore him. If they were bored or badly taught they may use him as a catalyst to disrupt the lesson. 5 min

Task, sit and listen to teacher rounding off the lesson. (Telling them what he has told them)

Much better but not looking at the teacher and not really on task but not seeking to be disruptive. 3 min

Footnote:
This is a real example. Subsequent assessment suggested this child did have a weak visual memory. However, this was not the problem. When I asked what the lesson was about, just as the teacher had done in the Q and A session the child shrugged shoulders and told me "don’t know". I had noted down some of the vocabulary used in various parts of the lesson and the child could offer good or fair definitions of the words related to the content of the lesson. The child therefore understood the lesson in its parts but not as a whole. We hypothesized that the child was not able to "chunk" information. We implemented a simple intervention using mind mapping and much improvement was made. At the time of my observation this child was at serious risk of being permanently excluded (expelled). This is no longer the case.

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Multisensory Teaching

Multisensory techniques for teaching reading

What is multisensory teaching?

Multisensory teaching is a way of teaching that uses more than one sense at a time. Using sight, hearing, movement, and touch gives children more than one way to connect with what they are learning. Multisensory learning can support children and adults in their learning, particularly those who struggle with their reading and maths development. Carry on reading to learn how to use multisensory teaching to support reading development.

Create a master list of tricky words

A master list should be kept of all the words the child has difficulty reading or spelling.  Two words should be selected to work on each day and no more.  The techniques described below should be used to practice these words. At the conclusion of the learning stage the child should be asked to read the word and to spell it when shown to him on a card.   They should be tested the next day, after one week, two weeks and a month and at that point if they have been correct at every stage the word will have become high frequency.  It can then be pinned on to a notice board where friends and relatives can see it and the child can show off their newly acquired reading and spelling skills to receive some well deserved praise.

Sensory writing

A selection of trays should be purchased, along with play/coloured sand, shaving foam and dry ingredients such as rice, lentils, beans, etc.  Some magnetic plastic letters, a scratchy chalk board and chalk, some plasticine and a large squeaky non-permanent felt tip should also be purchased.  

The first word is selected and the child should write this word in the sensory trays with their finger. This allows children to use sight, touch and sound to make a link between the letter shape and the sound it makes. The child should say each letter sound as they write it, and then say the finished word at the end by blending together each sound.

Air and board writing

Next, the child should write the word in the air using their fingers and use chalk and/or a dry wipe marker to write down the words. There are many other ways to write the word to keep the session interesting, such as typing the word, running/walking the shape of the word or using legs/arms to trace the shape of the word.

Magnetic letters for word building

The child can then make the word with magnetic letters. The child should say each letter sound as they lay down the magnet, and then they can blend the sounds together to form the whole word at the end.

Plasticine writing

If further support is needed to help the child link each sound to the letter, they can make each letter with plasticine.

Sandpaper letters

Letters cut out of sandpaper can help children hold on to tactile (touch) memory of letters and their sounds. The child should trace each letter with their finger while saying the sound of the letter out loud. They can feel the shape of the letters as they write.

Kids can also arrange sandpaper letters on a table to spell out words. They can then lay a piece of paper on top of the sandpaper letters and colour over the letters to create a rubbing. Again they should repeatedly say the letter sound of the letter they are focussing on, and blend them together at the end.

Read it, build it, write it

This technique requires the child to have a piece of paper with three boxes on it, labelled “Read,” “Build,” and “Write.” They also have cards with the words they are focussing on learning, magnetic letters, and a felt-tip pen. The child first reads the sight word that’s in the “Read” box together with the person supporting them. Then they should build the word in the “Build” box, using their letters. Finally, the child should practice writing the word in the “Write” box.

Tapping sounds and using poppits for sounds

Tapping or pushing down a bubble on a poppit toy gives children a feel for how sounds are segmented and blended to make words. The child should tap their fingers or push down the bubble on a poppit for each sound in the word they are focussing on, and then blend the sounds together at the end.

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Mind Mapping (spider Diagrams)

Mind Mapping (Spider Diagrams)

Mind mapping or spider diagrams are a very useful way of recording information.  It is a useful revision technique as well as being an excellent way of encouraging processing of information into chunks.  It is often recommended for children who experience writing difficulties.  Furthermore, it is a useful technique for children who have some form of language disorder, as the chunking of information helps them develop comprehension skills and assists in the formation of mental links. 

If you find it difficult to persuade your child's school to adopt this or other alternative methods of recording it may be helpful seek advice from an Educational Psychologist. The resulting recommendations may prove helpful to the school and help facilitate changes that help the child fully access the curriculum.

Find an Educational Psychologist read more about Alternative methods of recording 

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Managing Pupil Behaviour- A Framework For Staff Problem Solving: Ideas For Initial Session

A Framework for Staff Problem Solving: Ideas for an Initial Session

AIMS

To offer teaching staff involved with a specified group of pupils, i.e. class or year group, an opportunity to :

1. Collectively consider, agree and start to plan behaviour management strategies

2. Employ a problem solving model which is solution focused

3. Think in a different way about the behaviour which pupils present

PREPARATORY WORK FOR SESSION

All staff involved will receive a brief questionnaire prior to the session, and are asked to answer 3 questions spontaneously and briefly:

• What is your priority concern?

• What strategy/approach have you found most helpful?

• Can you briefly describe one idea for addressing X group’s difficulties?

An example summary of responses from one group of staff  (15 teachers) is as follows:

The problem/s (as seen by staff) were

 Pupils capacity to:

• Work independently

• To approach written assignments sensibly

• To treat each other with respect

• To cope with frustration, anger, anxiety

• To remain seated

• To be organised and equipped for lessons

• To concentrate

• To understand

• To listen

Individual pupils: Ju , Le, Jo, C, La

Teachers ability to:

• Maintain classroom control

• Delivery of the curriculum (explanation of work)

HELPFUL SUPPORT/STRATEGIES

• In-class support from teacher colleagues

• Lessons which entail pupils being ‘on task’ as soon as possible

• Firm classroom rules and routines

• Basic task instructions

• Individual pupils on report

• Differentiated curriculum tasks

• Reduction of movement around the classroom

• Organisation which entails all equipment and materials being ready on pupils’ tables

• Withdrawal work for individual pupils

• Oral and group work

 IDEAS

• Splitting up difficult pupil groups

• Individualised and differentiated learning tasks

• Praise, positive teacher commentary

• Regular in-class support

• Use of drama/role-play

• Opportunities for teacher colleagues to both observe and be observed

• Group work for both curriculum and social development purposes

THE SESSION

This begins with a presentation of a collation of the responses received from questionnaires. The important message here is that staff already possess a huge amount of information and many ideas with regards to the problem/s. This exercise is designed to empower and facilitate a realistic and practical optimism within the staff group. Having done this, it is then possible to establish first order principles and core ideas re the task being engaged in, for example:

PROBLEM SOLVING

Some core ideas

• if you’re not a part of the solution, you’re a part of the problem

• Not everything can be tackled at once

• Teaching and learning are continuous problem solving enterprises

• The problem/s is/are somebodys' solution/s

• The problem/solution holder is the expert in the problem/solution

The next part of the session looks at and addresses the question:

WHERE TO START ?

1. Concerns - collectively agree the priority

Nominal group technique.

Returning to the summary of staff responses to the question ‘what is your priority concern?’; staff are asked to pick three items from the list and rank each item in order of importance.

The item which they consider to be most important gets three points, the next receives two points; the third and most important receives one point.

The presenter collects staff points and records them on a flip chart or overhead and adds them up. This allows for a collectively prioritised concern or concerns (no more than three) to be identified for subsequent work in the session.

2. Personal Construct Psychology

It is suggested that at this point the presenter has some theoretical input; background reading by the presenter is strongly advised in preparation for this part of the session.

• Alternative Constructivism. George Kelly, social psychology (1955) Social construct theory social and systematic theory of human behaviour

• This theory has implications for action, change and growth through experience.

• We see each and every person as a personality theory in action.

• Each individual has an attitude to others; this is informed by his theory of persons, understanding and stance in relation to change.

• Humans as inherently socially referenced - constant interaction with others, some supportive and enabling, others a state of antagonism.

• It is the extremes perhaps on both sides who offer many opportunities for growth of understanding and personal development

Ravenette, A.T. (1997) Selected Papers. Personal Construct Psychology and the Practice of an Educational Psychologist London: Personal Construct Association Publications.

Staff are then asked to consider:

What solution does this problem allow ?*

(Tom Ravenette questions)

Staff are asked to look at their collectively agreed priority concern/s and to ask the question as above*. This will probably be fairly challenging as it requires them to de-centre from their position as a teacher, and to look at the problem from the pupils’ perspective. The presenter may well need to model/demonstrate at first.

3. Mind-map (brainstorm) of ideas - include the improbable, unfeasible, innovative, impossible.

This is the final part of the session. Working in pairs, staff complete the sheet (see below **). These are then collected, and the presenter concludes by re-visiting main themes of the session. This will include an explanation that a summary of the session, and the ideas generated by staff, will be compiled and returned to senior management for follow-up. It may also be useful to inform staff that a subsequent session can be arranged on request.

**

A theory about X group

How can this theory be tested? 

What will be apparent if the theory is correct ?

List Of Nouns

Using a list of nouns when children are beginning to read is helpful in making teaching easier. Nouns are one of the first parts of speech that children learn when they begin to read. Use the following list of nouns for each age group to help your child learn about the ideas things, people and places that surround them.

Year R
ball
bat
bed
book
boy
bun
can
cake
cap
car
cat
cow
cub
cup
dad
day
dog
doll
dust
fan
feet
girl
gun
hall
hat
hen
jar
kite
man
map
men
mom
pan
pet
pie
pig
pot
rat
son
sun
toe
tub
van

Year 1
apple
arm
banana
bike
bird
book
chin
clam
class
clover
club
corn
crayon
crow
crown
crowd
crib
desk
dime
dirt
dress
fang
field
flag
flower
fog
game
heat
hill
home
horn
hose
joke
juice
kite
lake
maid
mask
mice
milk
mint
meal
meat
moon
mother
morning
name
nest
nose
pear
pen
pencil
plant
rain
river
road
rock
room
rose
seed
shape
shoe
shop
show
sink
snail
snake
snow
soda
sofa
star
step
stew
stove
straw
string
summer
swing
table
tank
team
tent
test
toes
tree
vest
water
wing
winter
woman
women

Year 2
alarm
animal
aunt
bait
balloon
bath
bead
beam
bean
bedroom
boot
bread
brick
brother
camp
chicken
children
crook
deer
dock
doctor
downtown
drum
dust
eye
family
father
fight
flesh
food
frog
goose
grade
grandfather
grandmother
grape
grass
hook
horse
jail
jam
kiss
kitten
light
loaf
lock
lunch
lunchroom
meal
mother
notebook
owl
pail
parent
park
plot
rabbit
rake
robin
sack
sail
scale
sea
sister
soap
song
spark
space
spoon
spot
spy
summer
tiger
toad
town
trail
tramp
tray
trick
trip
uncle
vase
winter
water
week
wheel
wish
wool
yard
zebra

Year 3
actor
airplane
airport
army
baseball
beef
birthday
boy
brush
bushes
butter
cast
cave
cent
cherries
cherry
cobweb
coil
cracker
dinner
eggnog
elbow
face
fireman
flavor
gate
glove
glue
goldfish
goose
grain
hair
haircut
hobbies
holiday
hot
jellyfish
ladybug
mailbox
number
oatmeal
pail
pancake
pear
pest
popcorn
queen
quicksand
quiet
quilt
rainstorm
scarecrow
scarf
stream
street
sugar
throne
toothpaste
twig
volleyball
wood
wrench

Year 4
advice
anger
answer
apple
arithmetic
badge
basket
basketball
battle
beast
beetle
beggar
brain
branch
bubble
bucket
cactus
cannon
cattle
celery
cellar
cloth
coach
coast
crate
cream
daughter
donkey
drug
earthquake
feast
fifth
finger
flock
frame
furniture
geese
ghost
giraffe
governor
honey
hope
hydrant
icicle
income
island
jeans
judge
lace
lamp
lettuce
marble
month
north
ocean
patch
plane
playground
poison
riddle
rifle
scale
seashore
sheet
sidewalk
skate
slave
sleet
smoke
stage
station
thrill
throat
throne
title
toothbrush
turkey
underwear
vacation
vegetable
visitor
voyage
year

Year 5
able
achieve
acoustics
action
activity
aftermath
afternoon
afterthought
apparel
appliance
beginner
believe
bomb
border
boundary
breakfast
cabbage
cable
calculator
calendar
caption
carpenter
cemetery
channel
circle
creator
creature
education
faucet
feather
friction
fruit
fuel
galley
guide
guitar
health
heart
idea
kitten
laborer
language
lawyer
linen
locket
lumber
magic
minister
mitten
money
mountain
music
partner
passenger
pickle
picture
plantation
plastic
pleasure
pocket
police
pollution
railway
recess
reward
route
scene
scent
squirrel
stranger
suit
sweater
temper
territory
texture
thread
treatment
veil
vein
volcano
wealth
weather
wilderness
wren
wrist
writer

General List of Common Nouns
account
achiever
acoustics
act
action
activity
actor
addition
adjustment
advertisement
advice
aftermath
afternoon
afterthought
agreement
air
airplane
airport
alarm
amount
amusement
anger
angle
animal
answer
ant
apparatus
apparel
apple
apples
appliance
approval
arch
argument
arithmetic
arm
army
art
attack
attempt
attention
attraction
aunt
authority

babies
baby
back
badge
bag
bait
balance
balloon
ball
balls
banana
band
base
baseball
basin
basket
basketball
bat
bath
battle
bead
beam
bean
bear
bears
beast
bed
bedroom
beds
bee
beef
beetle
beggar
beginner
behavior
belief
believe
bell
bells
berry
bike
bikes
bird
birds
birth
birthday
bit
bite
blade
blood
blow
board
boat
boats
body
bomb
bone
book
books
boot
border
bottle
boundary
box
boy
boys
brain
brake
branch
brass
bread
breakfast
breath
brick
bridge
brother
brothers
brush
bubble
bucket
building
bulb
bun
burn
burst
bushes
business
butter

cabbage
cable
cactus
cake
cakes
calculator
calendar
camera
camp
can
cannon
canvas
cap
caption
car
card
care
carpenter
carriage
cars
cart
cast
cats
cattle
cat
cause
cave
celery
cellar
cemetery
cent
chain
chair
chairs
chalk
chance
change
channel
cheese
cherries
cherry
chess
chicken
children
chin
church
circle
clam
class
clock
clocks
cloth
cloud
clouds
clover
club
coach
coal
chickens
coast
coat
cobweb
coil
collar
color
comb
comfort
committee
company
comparison
competition
condition
connection
control
cook
copper
copy
cord
cork
corn
cough
country
cover
cow
cows
crack
cracker
crate
crayon
cream
creator
creature
credit
crib
crime
crook
crow
crowd
crown
crush
cry
cub
cup
current
curtain
curve
cushion 

dad
daughter
day
death
debt
decision
deer
degree
design
desire
desk
destruction
detail
development
digestion
dime
dinner
dinosaurs
direction
dirt
discovery
disgust
distance
distribution
division
dock
doctor
dog
dogs
doll
dolls
donkey
disease
discussion
door
downtown
drain
drawer
dress
drink
driving
drop
drug
drum
duck
ducks
dust

ear
earth
earthquake
edge
education
effect
egg
eggnog
eggs
elbow
end
engine
error
event
example
exchange
existence
expansion
experience
expert
eye
eyes

face
fact
fairies
fall
family
fan
fang
farm
farmer
father
father
faucet
fear
feast
feather
feeling
feet
fiction
field
fifth
fight
finger
finger
fire
fireman
fish
flag
flame
flavor
flesh
flight
flock
floor
flower
flowers
fly
fog
fold
food
foot
force
fork
form
fowl
frame
friction
friend
friends
frog
frogs
front
fruit
fuel
furniture

game
garden
gate
geese
ghost
giants
giraffe
girl
girls
glass
glove
glue
goat
gold
goldfish
good-bye
goose
government
governor
grade
grain
grandfather
grandmother
grape
grass
grip
ground
group
growth
guide
guitar
gun

hair
haircut
hall
hammer
hand
hands
harbor
harmony
hat
hate
head
health
hearing
heart
heat
help
hen
hill
history
hobbies
hole
holiday
home
honey
hook
hope
horn
horse
horses
hose
hospital
hot
hour
house
houses
humor
hydrant

ice
icicle
idea
impulse
income
increase
industry
ink
insect
instrument
insurance
interest
invention
iron
island

jail
jam
jar
jeans
jelly
jellyfish
jewel
join
joke
journey
judge
juice
jump

kettle
key
kick
kiss
kite
kitten
kittens
kitty
knee
knife
knot
knowledge

laborer
lace
ladybug
lake
lamp
land
language
laugh
lawyer
lead
leaf
learning
leather
leg
legs
letter
letters
lettuce
level
library
lift
light
limit
line
linen
lip
liquid
list
lizards
loaf
lock
locket
look
loss
love
low
lumber
lunch
lunchroom

machine
magic
maid
mailbox
man
manager
map
marble
mark
market
mask
mass
match
meal
measure
meat
meeting
memory
men
metal
mice
middle
milk
mind
mine
minister
mint
minute
mist
mitten
mom
money
monkey
month
moon
morning
mother
motion
mountain
mouth
move
muscle
music

nail
name
nation
neck
need
needle
nerve
nest
net
news
night
noise
north
nose
note
notebook
number
nut

oatmeal
observation
ocean
offer
office
oil
operation
opinion
orange
oranges
order
organization
ornament
oven
owl
owner
page

pail
pain
paint
pan
pancake
paper
parcel
parent
park
part
partner
party
passenger
paste
patch
payment
peace
pear
pen
pencil
person
pest
pet
pets
pickle
picture
pie
pies
pig
pigs
pin
pipe
pizzas
place
plane
planes
plant
plantation
plants
plastic
plate
play
playground
pleasure
plot
plough
pocket
point
poison
police
polish
pollution
popcorn
porter
position
pot
potato
powder
power
price
print
prison
process
produce
profit
property
prose
protest
pull
pump
punishment
purpose
push

quarter
quartz
queen
question
quicksand
quiet
quill
quilt
quince
quiver

rabbit
rabbits
rail
railway
rain
rainstorm
rake
range
rat
rate
ray
reaction
reading
reason
receipt
recess
record
regret
relation
religion
representative
request
rest
reward
rhythm
rice
riddle
rifle
ring
rings
river
road
robin
rock
rod
roll
roof
room
root
rose
route
rub
rule
run

sack
sail
salt
sand
scale
scarecrow
scarf
scene
scent
school
science
scissors
screw
sea
seashore
seat
secretary
seed
selection
self
sense
servant
shade
shake
shame
shape
sheep
sheet
shelf
ship
shirt
shock
shoe
shoes
shop
show
side
sidewalk
sign
silk
silver
sink
sister
sisters
size
skate
skin
skirt
sky
slave
sleep
sleet
slip
slope
smash
smell
smile
smoke
snail
snails
snake
snakes
sneeze
snow
soap
society
sock
soda
sofa
son
song
songs
sort
sound
soup
space
spade
spark
spiders
sponge
spoon
spot
spring
spy
square
squirrel
stage
stamp
star
start
statement
station
steam
steel
stem
step
stew
stick
sticks
stitch
stocking
stomach
stone
stop
store
story
stove
stranger
straw
stream
street
stretch
string
structure
substance
sugar
suggestion
suit
summer
sun
support
surprise
sweater
swim
swing
system

table
tail
talk
tank
taste
tax
teaching
team
teeth
temper
tendency
tent
territory
test
texture
theory
thing
things
thought
thread
thrill
throat
throne
thumb
thunder
ticket
tiger
time
tin
title
toad
toe
toes
tomatoes
tongue
tooth
toothbrush
toothpaste
top
touch
town
toy
toys
trade
trail
trees
trick
trip
trouble
trousers
truck
trucks
tub
turkey
turn
twig
twist
train
trains
tramp
transport
tray
treatment
tree

umbrella
uncle
underwear
unit
use

vacation
value
van
vase
vegetable
veil
vein
verse
vessel
vest
view
visitor
voice
volcano
volleyball
voyage

walk
wall
war
wash
waste
watch
water
wave
waves
wax
way
wealth
weather
week
weight
wheel
whip
whistle
wilderness
wind
window
wine
wing
winter
wire
wish
woman
women
wood
wool
word
work
worm
wound
wren
wrench
wrist
writer
writing

yak
yam
yard
yarn
year
yoke

zebra
zephyr
zinc
zipper
zoo

Listening Skills

The "Listening Skills" course details how to form and manage a small group where the focus of the work is the development of listening skills.  The central assumption is that just as with every other skill people seek to acquire, some people are great and others find it very difficult, with most people falling somewhere in between.  The approach taken is very much along the lines of we all find some things difficult and need extra help to learn how to do it.  It's no big deal.  The games are fun, yet increasingly demanding.  The intention of the pack is to offer an approach with a number of pre-planned sessions to get things started.  The facilitator is encouraged to investigate the actual problems the child/children are experiencing in the context they live and study in.  Games will then be generated to address specific difficulties by the group facilitator.

• Free Listening Skills Download

FIND AN EDUCATIONAL  PSYCHOLOGIST

List Of Adjectives

An adjective's job is to modify a noun or pronoun. They are always near the noun or pronoun they are describing. 

Appearance Adjectives
adorable
beautiful
clean
drab
elegant
fancy
glamorous
handsome
long
magnificent
old-fashioned
plain
quaint
sparkling
ugliest
unsightly
wide-eyed

Colour Adjectives
red
orange
yellow
green
blue
purple
gray
black
white

Condition Adjectives
alive
better
careful
clever
dead
easy
famous
gifted
helpful
important
nexpensive
mushy
odd
powerful
rich
shy
tender
uninterested
vast
wrong.

Bad Feelings Adjectives
angry
bewildered
clumsy
defeated
embarrassed
fierce
grumpy
helpless
itchy
jealous
Lazy
mysterious
nervous
obnoxious
panicky
repulsive
scary
thoughtless
uptight
worried

Good Feelings Adjectives
agreeable
brave
calm
delightful
eager
faithful
gentle
happy
jolly
kind
lively
nice
obedient
proud
relieved
silly
thankful
victorious
witty
zealous

Shape Adjectives
broad
chubby
crooked
curved
deep
flat
high
hollow
low
narrow
round
shallow
skinny
square
steep
straight
wide.

Size Adjectives
big
colossal
fat
gigantic
great
huge
immense
large
little
mammoth
massive
miniature
petite
puny
scrawny
short
small
tall
teeny
teeny-tiny
tiny

Sound Adjectives
cooing
deafening
faint
hissing
loud
melodic
noisy
purring
quiet
raspy
screeching
thundering
voiceless
whispering

Time Adjectives
ancient
brief
early
late
fast
long
modern
old
old-fashioned
quick
rapid
short
slow
swift
young

Taste/Touch Adjectives
bitter
delicious
fresh
greasy
juicy
hot
icy
loose
melted
nutritious
prickly
rainy
rotten
salty
sticky
strong
sweet
tart
tasteless
uneven
weak
wet
wooden
yummy

Touch Adjectives
boiling
breeze
broken
bumpy
chilly
cold
cool
creepy
crooked
cuddly
curly
damaged
damp
dirty
dry
dusty
filthy
flaky
fluffy
freezing
hot
warm
wet

Quantity Adjectives
abundant
empty
few
full
heavy
light
many
numerous
substantial
sparse

List Of Nouns

List of Nouns
 

Using a list of nouns when children are beginning to read is helpful in making teaching easier. Nouns are one of the first parts of speech that children learn when they begin to read. Use the following list of nouns for each age group to help your child learn about the ideas things, people and places that surround them.

Year R
ball
bat
bed
book
boy
bun
can
cake
cap
car
cat
cow
cub
cup
dad
day
dog
doll
dust
fan
feet
girl
gun
hall
hat
hen
jar
kite
man
map
men
mom
pan
pet
pie
pig
pot
rat
son
sun
toe
tub
van

Year 1
apple
arm
banana
bike
bird
book
chin
clam
class
clover
club
corn
crayon
crow
crown
crowd
crib
desk
dime
dirt
dress
fang
field
flag
flower
fog
game
heat
hill
home
horn
hose
joke
juice
kite
lake
maid
mask
mice
milk
mint
meal
meat
moon
mother
morning
name
nest
nose
pear
pen
pencil
plant
rain
river
road
rock
room
rose
seed
shape
shoe
shop
show
sink
snail
snake
snow
soda
sofa
star
step
stew
stove
straw
string
summer
swing
table
tank
team
tent
test
toes
tree
vest
water
wing
winter
woman
women

Year 2
alarm
animal
aunt
bait
balloon
bath
bead
beam
bean
bedroom
boot
bread
brick
brother
camp
chicken
children
crook
deer
dock
doctor
downtown
drum
dust
eye
family
father
fight
flesh
food
frog
goose
grade
grandfather
grandmother
grape
grass
hook
horse
jail
jam
kiss
kitten
light
loaf
lock
lunch
lunchroom
meal
mother
notebook
owl
pail
parent
park
plot
rabbit
rake
robin
sack
sail
scale
sea
sister
soap
song
spark
space
spoon
spot
spy
summer
tiger
toad
town
trail
tramp
tray
trick
trip
uncle
vase
winter
water
week
wheel
wish
wool
yard
zebra

Year 3
actor
airplane
airport
army
baseball
beef
birthday
boy
brush
bushes
butter
cast
cave
cent
cherries
cherry
cobweb
coil
cracker
dinner
eggnog
elbow
face
fireman
flavor
gate
glove
glue
goldfish
goose
grain
hair
haircut
hobbies
holiday
hot
jellyfish
ladybug
mailbox
number
oatmeal
pail
pancake
pear
pest
popcorn
queen
quicksand
quiet
quilt
rainstorm
scarecrow
scarf
stream
street
sugar
throne
toothpaste
twig
volleyball
wood
wrench

Year 4
advice
anger
answer
apple
arithmetic
badge
basket
basketball
battle
beast
beetle
beggar
brain
branch
bubble
bucket
cactus
cannon
cattle
celery
cellar
cloth
coach
coast
crate
cream
daughter
donkey
drug
earthquake
feast
fifth
finger
flock
frame
furniture
geese
ghost
giraffe
governor
honey
hope
hydrant
icicle
income
island
jeans
judge
lace
lamp
lettuce
marble
month
north
ocean
patch
plane
playground
poison
riddle
rifle
scale
seashore
sheet
sidewalk
skate
slave
sleet
smoke
stage
station
thrill
throat
throne
title
toothbrush
turkey
underwear
vacation
vegetable
visitor
voyage
year

Year 5
able
achieve
acoustics
action
activity
aftermath
afternoon
afterthought
apparel
appliance
beginner
believe
bomb
border
boundary
breakfast
cabbage
cable
calculator
calendar
caption
carpenter
cemetery
channel
circle
creator
creature
education
faucet
feather
friction
fruit
fuel
galley
guide
guitar
health
heart
idea
kitten
laborer
language
lawyer
linen
locket
lumber
magic
minister
mitten
money
mountain
music
partner
passenger
pickle
picture
plantation
plastic
pleasure
pocket
police
pollution
railway
recess
reward
route
scene
scent
squirrel
stranger
suit
sweater
temper
territory
texture
thread
treatment
veil
vein
volcano
wealth
weather
wilderness
wren
wrist
writer

General List of Common Nouns
account
achiever
acoustics
act
action
activity
actor
addition
adjustment
advertisement
advice
aftermath
afternoon
afterthought
agreement
air
airplane
airport
alarm
amount
amusement
anger
angle
animal
answer
ant
apparatus
apparel
apple
apples
appliance
approval
arch
argument
arithmetic
arm
army
art
attack
attempt
attention
attraction
aunt
authority

babies
baby
back
badge
bag
bait
balance
balloon
ball
balls
banana
band
base
baseball
basin
basket
basketball
bat
bath
battle
bead
beam
bean
bear
bears
beast
bed
bedroom
beds
bee
beef
beetle
beggar
beginner
behavior
belief
believe
bell
bells
berry
bike
bikes
bird
birds
birth
birthday
bit
bite
blade
blood
blow
board
boat
boats
body
bomb
bone
book
books
boot
border
bottle
boundary
box
boy
boys
brain
brake
branch
brass
bread
breakfast
breath
brick
bridge
brother
brothers
brush
bubble
bucket
building
bulb
bun
burn
burst
bushes
business
butter

cabbage
cable
cactus
cake
cakes
calculator
calendar
camera
camp
can
cannon
canvas
cap
caption
car
card
care
carpenter
carriage
cars
cart
cast
cats
cattle
cat
cause
cave
celery
cellar
cemetery
cent
chain
chair
chairs
chalk
chance
change
channel
cheese
cherries
cherry
chess
chicken
children
chin
church
circle
clam
class
clock
clocks
cloth
cloud
clouds
clover
club
coach
coal
chickens
coast
coat
cobweb
coil
collar
color
comb
comfort
committee
company
comparison
competition
condition
connection
control
cook
copper
copy
cord
cork
corn
cough
country
cover
cow
cows
crack
cracker
crate
crayon
cream
creator
creature
credit
crib
crime
crook
crow
crowd
crown
crush
cry
cub
cup
current
curtain
curve
cushion 

dad
daughter
day
death
debt
decision
deer
degree
design
desire
desk
destruction
detail
development
digestion
dime
dinner
dinosaurs
direction
dirt
discovery
disgust
distance
distribution
division
dock
doctor
dog
dogs
doll
dolls
donkey
disease
discussion
door
downtown
drain
drawer
dress
drink
driving
drop
drug
drum
duck
ducks
dust

ear
earth
earthquake
edge
education
effect
egg
eggnog
eggs
elbow
end
engine
error
event
example
exchange
existence
expansion
experience
expert
eye
eyes

face
fact
fairies
fall
family
fan
fang
farm
farmer
father
father
faucet
fear
feast
feather
feeling
feet
fiction
field
fifth
fight
finger
finger
fire
fireman
fish
flag
flame
flavor
flesh
flight
flock
floor
flower
flowers
fly
fog
fold
food
foot
force
fork
form
fowl
frame
friction
friend
friends
frog
frogs
front
fruit
fuel
furniture

game
garden
gate
geese
ghost
giants
giraffe
girl
girls
glass
glove
glue
goat
gold
goldfish
good-bye
goose
government
governor
grade
grain
grandfather
grandmother
grape
grass
grip
ground
group
growth
guide
guitar
gun

hair
haircut
hall
hammer
hand
hands
harbor
harmony
hat
hate
head
health
hearing
heart
heat
help
hen
hill
history
hobbies
hole
holiday
home
honey
hook
hope
horn
horse
horses
hose
hospital
hot
hour
house
houses
humor
hydrant

ice
icicle
idea
impulse
income
increase
industry
ink
insect
instrument
insurance
interest
invention
iron
island

jail
jam
jar
jeans
jelly
jellyfish
jewel
join
joke
journey
judge
juice
jump

kettle
key
kick
kiss
kite
kitten
kittens
kitty
knee
knife
knot
knowledge

laborer
lace
ladybug
lake
lamp
land
language
laugh
lawyer
lead
leaf
learning
leather
leg
legs
letter
letters
lettuce
level
library
lift
light
limit
line
linen
lip
liquid
list
lizards
loaf
lock
locket
look
loss
love
low
lumber
lunch
lunchroom

machine
magic
maid
mailbox
man
manager
map
marble
mark
market
mask
mass
match
meal
measure
meat
meeting
memory
men
metal
mice
middle
milk
mind
mine
minister
mint
minute
mist
mitten
mom
money
monkey
month
moon
morning
mother
motion
mountain
mouth
move
muscle
music

nail
name
nation
neck
need
needle
nerve
nest
net
news
night
noise
north
nose
note
notebook
number
nut

oatmeal
observation
ocean
offer
office
oil
operation
opinion
orange
oranges
order
organization
ornament
oven
owl
owner
page

pail
pain
paint
pan
pancake
paper
parcel
parent
park
part
partner
party
passenger
paste
patch
payment
peace
pear
pen
pencil
person
pest
pet
pets
pickle
picture
pie
pies
pig
pigs
pin
pipe
pizzas
place
plane
planes
plant
plantation
plants
plastic
plate
play
playground
pleasure
plot
plough
pocket
point
poison
police
polish
pollution
popcorn
porter
position
pot
potato
powder
power
price
print
prison
process
produce
profit
property
prose
protest
pull
pump
punishment
purpose
push

quarter
quartz
queen
question
quicksand
quiet
quill
quilt
quince
quiver

rabbit
rabbits
rail
railway
rain
rainstorm
rake
range
rat
rate
ray
reaction
reading
reason
receipt
recess
record
regret
relation
religion
representative
request
rest
reward
rhythm
rice
riddle
rifle
ring
rings
river
road
robin
rock
rod
roll
roof
room
root
rose
route
rub
rule
run

sack
sail
salt
sand
scale
scarecrow
scarf
scene
scent
school
science
scissors
screw
sea
seashore
seat
secretary
seed
selection
self
sense
servant
shade
shake
shame
shape
sheep
sheet
shelf
ship
shirt
shock
shoe
shoes
shop
show
side
sidewalk
sign
silk
silver
sink
sister
sisters
size
skate
skin
skirt
sky
slave
sleep
sleet
slip
slope
smash
smell
smile
smoke
snail
snails
snake
snakes
sneeze
snow
soap
society
sock
soda
sofa
son
song
songs
sort
sound
soup
space
spade
spark
spiders
sponge
spoon
spot
spring
spy
square
squirrel
stage
stamp
star
start
statement
station
steam
steel
stem
step
stew
stick
sticks
stitch
stocking
stomach
stone
stop
store
story
stove
stranger
straw
stream
street
stretch
string
structure
substance
sugar
suggestion
suit
summer
sun
support
surprise
sweater
swim
swing
system

table
tail
talk
tank
taste
tax
teaching
team
teeth
temper
tendency
tent
territory
test
texture
theory
thing
things
thought
thread
thrill
throat
throne
thumb
thunder
ticket
tiger
time
tin
title
toad
toe
toes
tomatoes
tongue
tooth
toothbrush
toothpaste
top
touch
town
toy
toys
trade
trail
trees
trick
trip
trouble
trousers
truck
trucks
tub
turkey
turn
twig
twist
train
trains
tramp
transport
tray
treatment
tree

umbrella
uncle
underwear
unit
use

vacation
value
van
vase
vegetable
veil
vein
verse
vessel
vest
view
visitor
voice
volcano
volleyball
voyage

walk
wall
war
wash
waste
watch
water
wave
waves
wax
way
wealth
weather
week
weight
wheel
whip
whistle
wilderness
wind
window
wine
wing
winter
wire
wish
woman
women
wood
wool
word
work
worm
wound
wren
wrench
wrist
writer
writing

yak
yam
yard
yarn
year
yoke

zebra
zephyr
zinc
zipper
zoo

List Of Prepositions

English speakers use prepositions in both formal and everyday communication. Without them, the English language would sound short and choppy. If you have a child starting grammar lessons, read through the list of prepositions and take a quick refresher class on prepositions.

Prepositions connect nouns, pronouns, and phrases with other words in a sentence. It gives information about location, direction, space, or time. Prepositions are usually part of a phrase because they often have a noun or pronoun after them. Here are two examples of prepositions in sentences.

The dog jumped over the fence. 

I will go to the doctor.
 

The main job of prepositions is to create relationships between words. How is the dog related to the fence? It jumped over the fence. How am I related to the doctor? I am going to the doctor
 

Prepositional phrases can also act like adverbs or adjectives. Remember that adverbs describe verbs (actions and being), and adjectives describe nouns and pronouns (ideas, people, places, and things).
 

As an adverb - The children crossed the street with caution.
The prepositional phrase "with caution" describes the way the children crossed the street.
As an adjective - He lives in the house with the red roof.

The prepositional phrase "with the red roof" describes the house in a specific way.
 

Children will see prepositions in their early reader books. In Kindergarten and first grade, children are focused on word recognition and reading skills. Basic sentence structure is taught, but it is too early for children that young to learn parts of speech. Below is a list of prepositions new readers can recognize easily:
 
List of Basic Prepositions
as
at
but
by
down
for
from
in
into
like
near
next
of
off
on
onto
out
over
past
plus
minus
since
than
to
up
with

As reading skills develop people will learn the spelling and definitions of more complex words. They are introduced to prepositions and other parts of speech between the second and fourth grade. The following list shows some more advanced prepositions:
 
List of Advanced Prepositions
aboard
about
above
across
after
against
along
around
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
between
beyond
during
except
following
inside
minus
onto
opposite
outside
round
since
through
toward
under
underneath
unlike
until
upon
without

As a students reading skills progress they are exposed to a variety of prepositions. This includes compound words and single words used in complex sentences.

according to
along with
alongside
among
apart from
as for
atop
because of
by means of
concerning
despite
except for
in addition to
in back of
in case of
in front of
in place of
in spite of
instead of
on top of
out of
regarding
throughout
till
up to
via
within
worth

Of course, the English language is full of exceptions. Some prepositions seem to break the rules, yet make sense in everyday language. These are called idioms. A few common examples include the following:

List of Idioms
according to
capable of
familiar with
impatient with
rewarded for
superior to
Prepositions are not always easy to identify in spoken and written language. However, they play a big part in making the English language colorful and interesting. Use this list of prepositions as a quick guide to help your student learn about prepositions. 
List of the Most Common Prepositions
aboard
about
above
absent
across
after
against
along
alongside
amid
amidst
among
anti
around
as
at
atop
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
but
by
concerning
considering
despite
down
during
except
excepting
excluding
following
for
from
in
in front of
inside    
instead of
into
like
mid
minus    

near
next
of
off
on
on top of
onto
opposite
out of
outside
over
past
per
plus
regarding
round    
save
since
than
through
till
times
to
toward
towards
under
underneath
unlike
until
up
upon
versus
via
with
within
without

List Of Pronouns

A pronoun can be defined as a function word that is used instead of a noun or a noun phrase. Examples of such pronouns include I, you, he, she, it, this, him, who, me, my, among many others.

all
another
any
anybody
anyone
anything

both

each
each other
either
everybody
everyone
everything

few

he
her
hers
herself
him
himself
his

I
it
its
itself

little

many
me
mine
more
most
much
my
myself
 
neither
no one
nobody
none
nothing

one
one another
other
others
our
ours
ourselves

several
she
some
somebody
someone
something

that
their
theirs
them
themselves
these
they
this
those

us

we
what
whatever
which
whichever
who
whoever
whom
whomever
whose

you
your
yours
yourself
yourselves

List Of Verbs

abide
accelerate
accept
accomplish
achieve
acquire
acted
activate
adapt
add
address
administer
admire
admit
adopt
advise
afford
agree
alert
alight
allow
altered
amuse
analyze
announce
annoy
answer
anticipate
apologize
appear
applaud
applied
appoint
appraise
appreciate
approve
arbitrate
argue
arise
arrange
arrest
arrive
ascertain
ask
assemble
assess
assist
assure
attach
bounce crack
crash
crawl
create
creep
critique
cross
crush
cry
cure
curl
curve
cut
cycle


dam
damage
dance
dare
deal
decay
deceive
decide
decorate
define
delay
delegate
delight
deliver
demonstrate
depend
describe
desert
deserve
design
destroy
detail
detect
determine
develop
devise
diagnose
dig
direct
disagree
disappear
disapprove
disarm
discover
dislike
dispense
display
disprove
dissect
distribute
dive
identify
ignore
illustrate
imagine
implement
impress
improve
improvise
include
increase
induce
influence
inform
initiate
inject
injure
inlay
innovate
input
inspect
inspire
install
institute
instruct
insure
integrate
intend
intensify
interest
interfere
interlay
interpret
interrupt
interview
introduce
invent
inventory
investigate
invite
irritate
itch    




jail
jam
jog
join
joke
judge
juggle
jump
justify
    attack
attain
attempt
attend
attract
audited
avoid
awake


back
bake
balance
ban
bang
bare
bat
bathe
battle
be
beam
bear
beat
become
beg
begin
behave
behold
belong
bend
beset
bet
bid
bind
bite
bleach
bleed
bless
blind
blink
blot
blow
blush
boast
boil
bolt
bomb
book
bore
borrow


divert
divide
do
double
doubt
draft
drag
drain
dramatize
draw
dream
dress
drink
drip
drive
drop
drown
drum
dry
dust
dwell


earn
eat
edited
educate
eliminate
embarrass
employ
empty
enacted
encourage
end
endure
enforce
engineer
enhance
enjoy
enlist
ensure
enter
entertain
escape
establish
estimate
evaluate
examine
exceed
excite
excuse
execute
exercise
exhibit
exist
expand
keep
kept
kick
kill
kiss
kneel
knit
knock
knot
know    


label
land
last
laugh
launch
lay
lead
lean
leap
learn
leave
lecture
led
lend
let
level
license
lick
lie
lifted
light
lighten
like
list
listen
live
load
locate
lock
log
long
look
lose
love
    bow
box
brake
branch
break
breathe
breed
brief
bring
broadcast
bruise
brush
bubble
budget
build
bump
burn
burst
bury
bust
buy
buzz


calculate
call
camp
care
carry
carve
cast
catalog
catch
cause
challenge
change
charge
chart
chase
cheat
check
cheer
chew
choke
choose
chop
claim
clap
clarify
classify
clean
expect
expedite
experiment
explain
explode
express
extend
extract    
face
facilitate
fade
fail
fancy
fasten
fax
fear
feed
feel
fence
fetch
fight
file
fill
film
finalize
finance
find
fire
fit
fix
flap
flash
flee
fling
float
flood
flow
flower
fly
fold
follow
fool
forbid
force
forecast
forego
foresee
foretell
forget
forgive
form
formulate
forsake
frame
freeze
maintain
make
man
manage
manipulate
manufacture
map
march
mark
market
marry
match
mate
matter
mean
measure
meddle
mediate
meet
melt
melt
memorize
mend
mentor
milk
mine
mislead
miss
misspell
mistake
misunderstand
mix
moan
model
modify
monitor
moor
motivate
mourn
move
mow
muddle
mug
multiply
murder    
    clear
cling
clip
close
clothe
coach
coil
collect
color
comb
come
command
communicate
compare
compete
compile
complain
complete
compose
compute
conceive
concentrate
conceptualize
concern
conclude
conduct
confess
confront
confuse
connect
conserve
consider
consist
consolidate
construct
consult
contain
continue
contract
control
convert
coordinate
copy
correct
correlate
cost
cough
counsel
count
cover
frighten
fry


gather
gaze
generate
get
give
glow
glue
go
govern
grab
graduate
grate
grease
greet
grin
grind
grip
groan
grow
guarantee
guard
guess
guide
hammer
hand
handle
handwrite
hang
happen
harass
harm
hate
haunt
head
heal
heap
hear
heat
help
hide
hit
hold
hook
hop
hope
hover
hug
hum
hunt
hurry
hurt
hypothesize
nail
name
navigate
need
negotiate
nest
nod
nominate
normalize
note
notice
number


obey
object
observe
obtain
occur
offend
offer
officiate
open
operate
order
organize
oriented
originate
overcome
overdo
overdraw
overflow
overhear
overtake
overthrow
owe
own


pack
paddle
paint
park
part
participate
pass
paste
pat
pause
pay
peck
pedal
peel
peep
perceive
perfect


perform
permit
persuade
phone
photograph
pick
pilot
pinch
pine
pinpoint
pioneer
place
plan
plant
play
plead
please
plug
point
poke
polish
pop
possess
post
pour
practice
praised
pray
preach
precede
predict
prefer
prepare
prescribe
present
preserve
preset
preside
press
pretend
prevent
prick
print
process
procure
produce
profess
program
progress
project
promise
promote
proofread
propose
    protect
prove
provide
publicize
pull
pump
punch
puncture
punish
purchase
push
put


qualify
question
queue
quit race
radiate
rain
raise
rank
rate
reach
read
realign
realize
reason
receive
recognize
recommend
reconcile
record
recruit
reduce
refer
reflect
refuse
regret
regulate
rehabilitate
reign
reinforce
reject
rejoice
relate
relax
release
rely
remain
remember
remind
remove
render
reorganize
    repeat
replace
reply
report
represent
reproduce
request
rescue
research
resolve
respond
restored
restructure
retire
retrieve
return
review
revise
rhyme
rid
ride
ring
rinse
rise
risk
rob
rock
roll
rot
rub
ruin
rule
run
rush sack
sail
satisfy
save
saw
say
scare
scatter
schedule
scold
scorch
scrape
scratch
scream
screw
scribble
scrub
seal
search
secure
see
        select
sell
send
sense
separate
serve
service
set
settle
sew
shade
shake
shape
share
shave
shear
shed
shelter
shine
shiver
shock
shoe
shoot
shop
show
shrink
shrug
shut
sigh
sign
signal
simplify
sin
sing
sink
sip
sit
sketch
ski
skip
slap
slay
sleep
slide
sling
slink
slip
slit
slow
smash
smell
smile
smite
smoke


sneak
sneeze
sniff
snore
snow
soak
solve
soothe
soothsay
sort
sound
sow
spare
spark
sparkle
speak
specify
speed
spell
spend
spill
spin
spit
split
spoil
spot
spray
spread
spring
sprout
squash
squeak
squeal
squeeze
stain
stamp
stand
stare
start
stay
steal
steer
step
stick
stimulate
sting
stink
stir
stitch
stop
store
strap
streamline


    strengthen
stretch
stride
strike
string
strip
strive
stroke
structure
study
stuff
sublet
subtract
succeed
suck
suffer
suggest
suit
summarize
supervise
supply
support
suppose
surprise
surround
suspect
suspend
swear
sweat
sweep
swell
swim
swing
switch
symbolize
synthesize
systemize


tabulate
take
talk
tame
tap
target
taste
teach
tear
tease
telephone
tell
tempt
terrify
test
thank
    think
thrive
throw
thrust
tick
tickle
tie
time
tip
tire
touch
tour
tow
trace
trade
train
transcribe
transfer
transform
translate
transport
trap
travel
tread
treat
tremble
trick
thaw
trip
trot
trouble
troubleshoot
trust
try
tug
tumble
turn
tutor
twist
type


undergo
understand
undertake
undress
unfasten
unify
unite
unlock
unpack
untidy
update
upgrade
uphold
    upset
use
utilize


vanish
verbalize
verify
vex
visit
    
wail
wait
wake
walk
wander
want
warm
warn
wash
waste
watch
water
wave
wear
weave
wed
weep
weigh
welcome
wend
wet
whine
whip
whirl
whisper
whistle
win
wind
wink
wipe
wish
withdraw
withhold    
wobble
wonder
work
worry
wrap
wreck
wrestle
wriggle
wring
write

Lazy Children

Over the ten years or so that I have been an educational psychologist, I have had many children referred to as being lazy.  My work as an independent psychologist working with a number of universities led me to assess numerous adults who had grown up thinking they were lazy.  Over the years I must have had hundreds referred.  A whole sea of lazy children and adults, but the strange thing was that every single one had a specific difficulty of some kind.

An average referral went along these lines:  He is just lazy, he can do the work, but sometimes decides that he just doesn't want to do the work.  A series of detailed questions follow and it seems that there are occasions when the child is very happy to do the work and others when he baulks.  There are occasions when he has worked well and then seems to stop.  What seems to happen then is that threats of punishment are made, or punishments given with more to come.  The child then reluctantly does more work, thus providing proof that he was just being lazy.  All that was needed was the firm smack of teacher discipline and all was well.

How about this for an alternative explanation.  The child is keen and eager to please adults just like any other child.  Writing/reading/planning/spelling or a complex mix or some or all takes huge amounts of cognitive resources. Yes, they can do these tasks, but it takes lots of mental energy; at some point they will be mentally exhausted.  This is not visible like being physically exhausted.  The mentally exhausted child stops work, or more likely slows down, begins to look around, perhaps chat a little.  They get noticed, are warned and warned with threat of punishment, and finally may do some more work.  This is not lazy, but indicative of a specific learning difficulty.

So what do you do now?  An assessment by an Educational Psychologist can highlight the cause of a child's' difficulty. If the cause is a specific learning difficulty, this will probably be identified and ways forward can be planned and implemented.  The emotional damage can cease or lessen, and the child will become much happier and gain in confidence. Skills increase because they are supported appropriately, and to offer appropriate support, the underlying area of need must be better understood.

FIND AN EDUCATIONAL  PSYCHOLOGIST

IQ Testing

This is an area of apparent disagreement amongst psychologists, or is it?  There is agreement that IQ testing is highly predictive of academic potential.  In other words it is very good at finding children who have the potential to succeed academically.  This doesn't mean that those who do not score well don't ever succeed academically but it would be statistically rare.  It most certainly doesn't mean that a child will become successful academically merely because they have the potential to do so. Factors such as tenacity and opportunity come into play, amongst many others.

An IQ test can be very useful in picking up on a child's preferred learning style.  For example, they may be far more practically inclined than verbally?  This can be very helpful when deciding upon occupational and qualification pathways.

They can be useful when faced with a child who has an apparent learning difficulty;  is the child bright in some tasks or delayed in all areas tested?

Children with speech and language difficulties can be identified by the discrepancy between practical tasks and verbal tasks.  This is very useful information for speech and langauge therapists.

Some people just like to know their IQ it can add to self esteem.

Knowledge of a child's IQ can be useful evidence if the child fails to thrive in an educational setting, and as such can be a useful precaution. As parents are aware of what should be achieved they can monitor to make sure that achievement levels are being reached and investigate early if this is not the case

• Dyslexia Screening

Inconsequent Behavior

Inconsequent behaviour

Children who repeatedly get into trouble for the same or similar behaviours are a great strain on their teachers and parents. They leave the adults responsible for their care confused, possibly angry and most certainly with a feeling that they lack the skills to cope.  Some people may advocate comprehensive and instant punishment for these children.  You have tried it and still nothing much changed.  Two questions must surely come to mind.  Why? What can I do about it? 

Children will engage in repeated naughty behaviours for a whole variety of reasons.  Some may be seeking attention and if they find a naughty behaviour that gets attention, not surprisingly they use it over and over.  For other children there may be an unintended pay off.  For instance they are told the next time you do that your parents will have to come into school.  As parents are separated the child feels that getting the parents together is a good thing and sure enough the behaviour is repeated.  The purpose of this paper is to focus on children who have a social comprehension difficulty.  A social comprehension difficulty describes a specific difficulty that may be likened to any other specific difficulty.  It could be riding a bike, dancing (me), dyslexia and so on. 

A very convenient way of analyzing behaviour is to view it using ABC analysis. 

• A = Antecedent (that which come first, the trigger)
• B = Behaviour (what happens as a result of the antecedent)
• C = Consequence (much more than a sanction it also includes the effect on others)

An every day situation may be, Gill looks strangely at John when he can’t read a word.  John hits Gill.  The teacher keeps John in at playtime.  The other children get scared of John.  Gill really doesn’t like John and so on.  The consequences are huge. 

The first question to address is why does the adult impose a sanction, what are the assumptions behind it.  First assumption is that the adult does not really want this type of relationship with the child, they would rather be praising, but needs must, so a punishment is imposed.  The second assumption is that the next time John feels provoked he will think “The last time I hit someone I got kept in at break and I didn’t like that”.   This is where the adult could be wrong. 

Let’s assume that the child has a specific social comprehension difficulty.  In other words the process of learning via reward and punishment and the associated feed back via thought isn’t working too well.  Just as a child with dyslexia can’t process written text too well and the bad dancer can’t process music to movement efficiently.

If this were true what would happen.  Presumably the child would be getting into trouble over and over again for the same type of naughty behaviour.   One way to prove that this is the case would be to teach the child very actively about the behaviour consequence cycle.  Just as we provide dyslexics with multi-sensory teaching and the poor cyclist with extra support and time to learn these skills, we must give children who do not appear to have strong social comprehension skills a suitable intervention.   

What to do:  If you have picked up the reason for the child’s behaviour then an intervention called choice points is very effective.   It is probably best delivered as part of a general social skills development programme that is specifically tailored to the children in the group.  However, it can produce results if used as a one to one intervention.  I would suggest three sessions per week; each session only takes about ten minutes.   

The first step is to tell the child why you are doing this.  You are not doing it so that you can punish them but to help them because you think they are getting into trouble not because they are naughty but because they don’t understand.  The child will probably be rather lacking in trust so it may be best to use imaginary incidents at first.  As the child gains confidence in you s/he will be willing to be forthcoming about real incidents. 

Ask the child “What happened?”  You will probably get an answer that puts no blame on them, such as, “Jimmy hit me”.   Get a piece of paper and write this in the middle of the page and draw a circle around it.

Then ask, “What happened before that?”  Repeat what you did above, write it to the left of the previous comment and circle it.

Continue asking, “What happened before that?”  Until you are satisfied that you have a reasonable account of the beginning of the incident.

Read how the incident began to the child.  For instance, “Paul and Jimmy had an argument.  I walked into the classroom.   Paul told me that Jimmy had said rude things about my Mum.  I swore at Jimmy.  Jimmy hit me.”  Then ask, “What happened next?”  Continue as before but this time working your way to the right until you have a reasonable account of the whole incident.  Read back the whole incident to the child.  At this point they often want to add something.  If they do, add it and then read the whole incident back again.  If the child agrees with the map of the incident draw in some arrows so that the flow of the incident is clear and graphical.

Put the map in front of the child and ask if s/he can spot where they had a choice.  At first they find this difficult and you will probably have to help them.  After a while they get very adept at it.  Mark in the choices on the map.

Once the child has identified all the choice points ask, “What were the choices here?” Pointing to one of the choice points.  Write the choices they give you. As ever, at first the child will find this difficult, so the adult can take the lead and offer them some choices for their agreement.  For the first choice point some of the choices are:

• Ignore Paul.
• Tell Teacher
• Swear at Jimmy
• Hit Jimmy.
• Ask Jimmy if it is true.

The next step is to use gently probing questions to help the child to understand the consequences for each choice.  You write this up in front of them.  It may look something like this:

• Ignore Paul -- Nothing happens to me but I would be a bit cross for a while
• Tell Teacher -- She would probably ask Jimmy if it was true or do nothing.  Nothing would happen to me.
• Swear at Jimmy -- All sorts of trouble.  I ran out of school.  Mum is involved now.  
• Hit Jimmy -- Probably get suspended.
• Ask Jimmy if it is true --  If he did do it, I would probably hit him.  If he said he did not then nothing would happen.  I quite like Jimmy and we would still be friends.

The next step is to gently encourage the child to select the best choice for them.  

As time goes by you will be able to run through this procedure with the child or explore incidents in a group very efficiently with the child/children identifying choice points and the choices then selecting the best choice very rapidly.  They will transfer these skills to their life.  This can be a life changing experience for a child.

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How To Set A Reading Book At The Learning Level

Children read or look at books for a number of different reasons.  We ask children to read and look at books for a number of different reasons.  One of the reasons we ask children to read to us is to teach them to read.  If that is the activity we are engaged in with the child it is absolutely crucial that the book you are reading together is set at the learning level.  The following general rule is suggested by Marie Clay who became famous within the world of education due to her Reading Recovery system. 

Learning level = Child able to read 95 words in 100 (95%) 
Frustration level = Child able to read less than 95 words in 100 (<95%) 
Non learning level = Child able to read more than 95 words in 100 (>95%)

Obviously a few words either way is fine.  This is a general rule.  Ensuring a reading book is at the learning level is very easy.  All you need is a piece of paper, the back of an envelope will do.  A book, a child and you.  Ask the child to read the book to you.  As s/he reads, for each word correctly read do a / on the paper.  For each word the child is unable to read do an X.    You don’t actually need to let the child read 100 words, 50 will do and simply double the error count.  It is probably best if you do the scoring away from the child’s view.  Some people like to use an alternative to an X.  / and – for instance, then the child doesn’t see an X.  There is an example below done on the back of an envelope to give you a better idea.

 Good luck, stick at it and most children get there in the end.  If you feel that a child is not making progress we offer an advice service via e-mail.

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Handwriting Assessment For Teachers And Parents

Educational analysis of handwriting

This paper is concerned with the analysis of handwriting from an educational perspective, with a view to understanding the difficulties that a student may be experiencing in connection with writing by hand at school, college or university.  It will address the assessment of hand writing using standardised tests which are readily available to teachers and other professionals as well as describing how a standardised test of handwriting can be enhanced and supplemented using dynamic assessment techniques and describe how handwriting can be assessed without use of standardised tests.

The first step is to gather hand writing samples.  This can be done using standardised tests or using dynamic assessment techniques.  The Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting (DASH), and its sister test, the Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting 17+ (DASH 17+) are the standardised tests that my organisation has settled on.

The DASH is used to measure the handwriting speed of students from nine years to 17 years of age.  The DASH 17+ is used to measure the speed of handwriting of students from 17 years of age up to a test ceiling of 24 years 11 months.  This does not mean that the test cannot be used on students who are older than the test ceiling, although a note should be included when reporting the results that the scores are not offered as a truly standardised and accurate score.

The DASH and DASH 17+ tests the handwriting speed of a student under four different stresses: copying best, alphabet writing, copying fast and free writing.

The sub-test scores for all four can be cumulated in order to derive a standard score with associated percentile.

After the administration of a standardised test of handwriting speed you may wish to explore the student’s handwriting further using dynamic assessment techniques.  Alternatively you may not have standardised tests available or have objections to standardised tests.  If so the use of dynamic assessment techniques is very powerful.  Whilst this approach will not offer a standardised and statistically reliable score, it can allow students to be placed under higher levels of stress than the DASH or DASH 17+ where the free writing sample is provided under conditions of low cognitive demand: students free write about their life so far. 

To gather samples of a child or adults handwriting without use of standardised tests.  First type the standard sentence containing all letters of the English alphabet: The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog and print it out (Aerial 18).  Organise some sentences which will be presented visually at distance to emulate copying from the white board etc. during lessons/lectures.  Provide the student with pen and lined paper and ask them to:

• copy the standard sentence in their best handwriting repeatedly for one minute.
• copy the standard sentence in their fastest handwriting repeatedly for one minute.
• copy from distance for one minute.  
• free write about something simple, such as their day so far (low cognitive demand).  Allow five minutes for this with one minute for planning.
• free writing about something complex (high cognitive demand).  This task needs to be appropriately challenging and set in relation the student and their course of study.  The task would be the equivalent to an examination question. Explain that they will need to spend 10 minutes on this task. Allow two minutes for planning.
• Write to dictation (for secondary age students and above only).  Take your dictation sample from a text book they are currently using.

If a student has fast, average or generally slow handwriting it is likely that the words written per minute will be similar for each sample.  If using a standardised test very accurate tables will be available to you.  If using dynamic techniques the following writing speeds offer a rough rule of thumb 

Age                WPM

9                    10

10                  12

11                  14

12                 16

13                  18

14                  20

15                 22

16                 24

Adult          25

Analysing the Results and Intervention.

If you conclude that the writing speed is slow, then it may be useful to discuss making an alternative method of recording such as a lap top, tablet PC or a net book, the main method of recording at school, college or university.  To facilitate the effectiveness of this intervention it may be necessary for the student to further develop their touch typing skills.  This is usually done by use of software, there is an excellent training programme on the BBC web site: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/typing/ which is free of charge at the point of use.

Analysis of spelling error. You may wish to analysis the free writing sample for spelling errors under the following types.

• phonetic errors: This type of error may occur due to phonetic attempts to spell a word, for example, ‘right’ may be spelled as ‘riyt’. omitting suffixes: for example, I am go to the park.  Rather than  I am going to the park. 

• omitting plurals: for example, The Doctor had many patient waiting.  Rather than The Doctor had many patients waiting.

• vowel substitutions: for example brothor, for brother

• insertions, for example, whinning, for whining.

• omissions, for example, beining for beginning.

• transpositions, for example,  pharacuetical for pharmaceutical.

• Substitutions, for example, subsidice for subsidise. 

During the hand writing sampling students may balk, become distressed or present behaviours that indicate they are under stress.  If so stop testing.  If this happens during the copying samples, an exploration of alternative ways of recording would be an appropriate intervention, this could include dictation using a scribe or voice recognition software, use of a personal computing device: lap top, net book, tablet.  If it occurs during the free writing samples then further training in academic planning skills with some additional time in examinations (if possible) would be a useful intervention. 

It is useful to report the student’s pen grip.  There is a progression in pencil grasp from early childhood onwards Schneck and Henderson (1990).  In general pen holds are broken down into functional and inefficient grasp.   

Functional Grasp Patterns 
Tripod grasp with open web space: The pencil is held with the tip of the thumb and index finger and rests against the side of the third finger. The thumb and index finger form a circle. 

Quadripod grasp with open web space: The pencil is held with the tip of the thumb, index finger, and third finger and rests against the side of the fourth finger. The thumb and index finger form a circle. 

Adaptive tripod or D'Nealian grasp: The pencil is held between the index and third fingers with the tips of the thumb and index finger on the pencil. The pencil rests against the side of the third finger near its end. 

Immature Grasp Patterns 
Fisted grasp: The pencil is held in a fisted hand with the point of the pencil on the fifth finger side on the hand. This is typical of very young children. 

Pronated grasp: The pencil is held diagonally within the hand with the tips of the thumb and index finger on the pencil. This is typical of children ages 2 to 3. 

Inefficient Grasp Patterns 
Five finger grasp: The pencil is held with the tips of all five fingers. The movement when writing is primarily on the fifth finger side of the hand. 

Thumb tuck grasp: The pencil is held in a tripod or Quadripod grasp but with the thumb tucked under the index finger. 

Thumb wrap grasp: The pencil is held in a tripod or Quadripod grasp but with the thumb wrapped over the index finger. 

Tripod grasp with closed web space: The pencil is held with the tip of the thumb and index finger and rests against the side of the third finger. The thumb is rotated toward the pencil, closing the web space. 

Finger wrap or inter digital brace grasp: The index and third fingers wrap around the pencil. The thumb web space is completely closed. 

Flexed wrist or hooked wrist: The pencil can be held in a variety of grasps with the wrist flexed or bent. This is more typically seen with left-hand writers but is also present in some right-hand writers. 

On occasion difficulties may be identified that will necessitate onward referral to an educational psychologist or occupational therapist.  For instance, if the percentage of illegible words exceeds 25% then there is a strong likelihood that an educational psychologist or occupational therapist may consider a diagnosis of dysgraphia supported by the results of test instruments such as the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (Beery VMI) this would enable an assessment of the underlying skills associated with the development of hand writing to be explored.

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References:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/typing/

Beery, K.E. & Beery, N.A. (2010) The Beery-Buktencia Developmental Test of Visual Perception and Motor Coordination. Bloomington: Pearson (6th ed.).

Frith, U., 1982. Cognitive Processes in Spelling and their Relevance to Spelling Reform. Spelling Progress Bulletin, 6-9.

Handwriting Identification: Facts and Fundamentals   Roy A. Huber, Alfred M. Headrick 1999 crc press LLC

JCQ/AA/LD Form 8.  Application for access arrangements – Profile of learning difficulties

Min, K., Wilson, W.H., Moon, Y., 2000. Typographical and Orthographical Spelling Error Correction. LREC Conference.

Spelling Progress Bulletin, Summer 1983, pp14-16] Spelling and Handwriting: Is there a Relationship?,by Michael N. Milone, Jr, Ph.D. James A. Wilhide, and Thomas M, Wasylyk** Zaner-Bloser, Inc., Honesdale, PA.

SpLD Working Group 2005/DfES Guidelines.

Varnhagen, C.K., Varnhagen, S., Das, J.P. 1992. Analysis of Cognitive Processing and Spelling Errors of Average Ability and Reading Disabled Children. Reading Psychology, 17(3): 217-239.

First 200 Words

200 Useful words

a
and
he
I
in
is
it
of
that
the

 to
was
as
all
at
be
but
are
for
had

 
 after
again
always
am
ask
another
any
away
bed
because

 
 best
bird
black
blue
boy
bring
day
dog
don’t
eat

 
 
have
him
his
not
on
one
said
so
they
we

 
 with
you
an
about
back
been
before
big
by
call

 
every
fast
father
tell
find
five
fly
four
found
gave

 
 girl
give
going good
got
green
hand
head
help
home

came
can
come
could
did
do
down
first
from
get go
has
here
her
if
into
just
like
little
look
 
house
how
jump
know
 keep
last
left
let
live
long
 
 man
many
may
men
mother
Mr.
never
next
once
open

 
 
made
 make
me
more
much
must
my
no
new
now

 
 off
only
often
or
other
out
over
right
see
she

 
 own
play
put
ran
read
red
room
round
run
sat

 
 saw
say
school
should
sing
sit
soon
stop
take
tell
 
 
some
than
there
them
  then
 there
 this
 two
want
when

 
 up
were
where
which
who
will
your
old
went
what

 
 well
these
thin
think
three
time
too
tree
under
us

 
 very

walk
white
why
wish
work
woman
would.
yes
year